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White-tailed Deer - Odocoileus virginianus

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Native Species

Global Rank: G5
State Rank: S5


Agency Status
USFWS:
USFS:
BLM:


 

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Copyright by Borror Laboratory of Bioacoustics, Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, all rights reserved.
 
General Description
Coat grayish-brown in winter, reddish-brown in summer; underside of foot-long tail white; antlers consist of main beams, generally with three to five tines projecting upward; brow tines long; outside of lower hind foot has a small, teardrop-shaped scent gland; mature bucks weigh 250 to 275 lbs. on good range, does 160 to 180. Occupy small home ranges, do not migrate far; mostly nocturnal and secretive; solitary much of the time but form small groups in favored feeding areas; when alarmed or running, erect and wag their tails, causing white underside to flash.

Species Range
Montana Range Range Descriptions

Native

Montana Distribution


Western Hemisphere Range

 


Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database
Number of Observations: 4344

(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version) Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density

Recency

 

(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)



Migration
Uses summer range and winter range in western MT which may be 8.69 to 15 miles apart.

Habitat
River and creek bottoms; dense vegetation at higher elevations; sometimes open bitterbush hillsides in winter. In western MT, mature subclimax coniferous forest, cool sites, diversity and moist sites important in summer (Leach 1982). In winter prefer dense canopy classes, moist habitat types, uncut areas and low snow depths (Berner 1985).

Ecological Systems Associated with this Species
  • Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
    How Associations Were Made
    We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
    1. Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
    2. Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
    3. Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
    4. Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
    Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use.  In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system.  However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system, even if point observations were associated with that system.  Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature.  The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association.  If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.

    Suggested Uses and Limitations
    Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning.  These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at: mtnhp.org/requests) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists.  Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales.  Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade.  Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections).  Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.

    Literature Cited
    • Adams, R.A.  2003.  Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation.  Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado.  289 p.
    • Dobkin, D. S.  1992.  Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34.  Missoula, MT.
    • Foresman, K.R.  2012.  Mammals of Montana.  Second edition.  Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana.  429 pp.
    • Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998.  Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates.  Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.  1302 p.
    • Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young.  1999.  Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32.  72 p.
    • Maxell, B.A.  2000.  Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species.  Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1.  Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana.  161 p.
    • Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath.  2004.  Amphibians and reptiles of Montana.  Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.

Food Habits
Leaves, twigs, fruits, and berries of browse plants such as chokecherry, serviceberry, snowberry, and dogwood; some forbs during summer. Browse most important statewide, year-round; particularly so in winter. Graminoid use increases in spring, forb use in late spring and sometimes in fall.

Ecology
Different habitat selection reduces potential of Mule Deer and White-tailed Deer competetion. Cattle may compete if using river bottom browse heavily (in central MT). Extensive large clearcuts reduce winter range.

Reproductive Characteristics
Breed mid-to late November; one or two reddish but white-spotted fawns; bucks do not gather in harems; necks of rutting bucks swell (but less so than Mule Deer); healthy adult bucks shed antlers in December or January; does usually breed first as yearlings in Montana (16 to 17 months). In western MT breeds late November to early December. First breeding produces single fawns, twins thereafter. In Swan Valley mean fetal rate/pregnant does is 1.5 to 1.6, average annual recruitment 29%.


References
  • Literature Cited AboveLegend:   View Online Publication
    • Berner, K.L. 1985. Winter and spring habitat selection by white-tailed deer in a western Montana second-growth forest. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 98 pp.
    • Leach, R.H. 1982. Summer range ecology of white-tailed deer in the coniferous forests of northwestern Montana. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 80 pp.
  • Additional ReferencesLegend:   View Online Publication
    Do you know of a citation we're missing?
    • Adams, L. 1947. Observations on deer and hunters in the Fisher River district, Montana. USDA For. Serv., No. Rocky Mountain Exp. Sta. Res. Note 48. 4 pp.
    • Adams, L. 1951. White-tailed deer browsing on natural conifer seedlings. USDA For. Serv., No. Rocky Mountain Exp. Sta. Res. Note 105. 3 pp. (multilith)
    • Adams, L. 1951. White-tailed deer browsing on ponderosa pine plantations. USDA For. Serv., No. Rocky Mountain Exp. Sta. Res. Note 89. 5 pp. (multilith)
    • Adams, L.W. 1951. White-tailed deer browsing on ponderosa pine plantations. Missoula, Montana: Northern Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Research Note 89. 5pp.
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    • Mundinger, J. G. 1981. Impacts of timber harvest on white-tailed deer in the coniferous forests of northwestern Montana. NW Section, The Wildl. Soc., Couer d' Alene, Idaho. (Abstract)
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    • Singer, F. J. 1979. Habitat partitioning and wildfire relationships of cervids in Glacier National Park, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 43(2):437-444.
    • Singer, F.J. 1975. Wildfire and ungulates in the Glacier National Park area, northwestern Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 53 p.
    • Skinner, M. P. 1929. White-tailed deer formerly in the Yellowstone Park. J. Mammal. 10: 104.
    • Slott, B. J. 1980. White-tailed deer movements, survival, and population characteristics in the Clearwater River drainage, Montana. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 62 pp.
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    • Stansberry, B.J. 1991. Distribution, movements, and habitat use during spring, summer, and fall by mule deer in the North Salish Mountains, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 64 p.
    • Stearns-Roger Inc., 1975, Environmental baseline information of the Mount Vernon Region, Montana. January 31, 1975.
    • Stivers, T.S. 1988. Effects of livestock grazing on grizzly bear habitat along the east front of the Rocky Mountains, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 80 p.
    • Swenson, J. E., S. J. Knapp and H. J. Wentland. 1983. Winter distribution and habitat use by mule deer and white-tailed deer in southeastern Montana. Prairie Nat. 15:97-112.
    • Swenson, J.E. 1979. Effects of a hemorrhagic disease epizootic on a white-tailed deer population in eastern Montana. Proc. Mont. Acad. Sci. 38:25-32.
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    • Tucker, P. A. 1991. Evaluation of techniques to monitor white-tailed deer populations in the North Fork of the Flathead River, Montana. M.S. thesis, University of Montana, Missoula.
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    • Tweten, R.G. 1984. Baseline survey of furbearing mammals within the South Fork drainage Sun River, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 63 p.
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