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Mule Deer - Odocoileus hemionus
Native Species
Global Rank :
G5
State Rank :
S5
Agency Status
USFWS :
USFS :
BLM :
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Copyright Jeff Rice, all rights reserved. Audio file courtesy of the Acoustic Atlas at Montana State University (www.acousticatlas.org)
General Description
Coat gray in winter, brownish in summer; forehead and brisket dark; chin, throat, and rump patch white. Tail short and round with black tip. Ears large (reason for name). Antlers fork and fork again; typical adult buck has four tines on each side (or five if brow tines are present); forward-tipping brow tines are shorter than those of White-tailed Deer or may be absent. Outside of hind foot has a slit-like scent gland up to seven inches long. Mature bucks weigh 250 to 275 lbs. on good range, does 160 to 180. More gregarious and migratory (mostly elevational movements) than White-tailed Deer. Feed early and late in the day. Run with tail down in bounding leaps, keeping all feet together.
Species Range
Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database
Number of Observations: 8937
(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version)
Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density
Recency
(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)
Migration
Migratory in mountain-foothill habitats (Mackie et al. 1982).
Habitat
Grasslands interspersed with brushy coulees or breaks; riparian habitat along prairie rivers; open to dense montane and subalpine coniferous forests, aspen groves. Varies between areas and seasons. In prairie, uses breaks, badlands and brushy draws. In mountain foothills, Mule Deer are widely distributed in summer in forest and subalpine. In winter use lower elevation open shrub dominated slopes (Pac 1976, Mackie et al. 1982).
Ecological Systems Associated with this Species
Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
How Associations Were Made
We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for
vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use.
In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system.
However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system,
even if point observations were associated with that system.
Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature.
The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association.
If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.
Suggested Uses and Limitations
Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning.
These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at:
mtnhp.org/requests ) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists.
Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales.
Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade.
Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections).
Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.
Literature Cited
Adams, R.A. 2003. Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. 289 p.
Dobkin, D. S. 1992. Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34. Missoula, MT.
Foresman, K.R. 2012. Mammals of Montana. Second edition. Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana. 429 pp.
Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998. Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates. Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT. 1302 p.
Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young. 1999. Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32. 72 p.
Maxell, B.A. 2000. Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species. Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1. Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana. 161 p.
Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath. 2004. Amphibians and reptiles of Montana. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.
Commonly Associated with these Ecological SystemsAlpine Systems
Forest and Woodland Systems
Grassland Systems
Human Land Use
Recently Disturbed or Modified
Shrubland, Steppe and Savanna Systems
Sparse and Barren Systems
Wetland and Riparian Systems
Occasionally Associated with these Ecological SystemsAlpine Systems
Grassland Systems
Human Land Use
Recently Disturbed or Modified
Wetland and Riparian Systems
Food Habits
Bitterbush, mountain mahogany, chokecherry, serviceberry, grasses and forbs. Forbs most important in summer, shrub browse used year-round, most important in fall, winter, and spring. Grass minor item in diet. Food habits vary between years. Forage competition with Elk may be significant at times, not so with cattle, usually not with White-Tailed Deer.
Ecology
Has history of population fluctuations in state. Can cause problems with agriculture when too plentiful. Good winter range critical. Responsive harvest levels may facilitate population stability. Interspecific relationships vary depending on densities and species present.
Reproductive Characteristics
Attain sexual maturity as yearlings. Necks of rutting bucks swell. Reproduction occurs in late November; dominant bucks breed more than one doe. Rutting bucks travel among doe groups tending and breeding females in estrus. Healthy adult bucks shed antlers in January and February. One or two chocolate brown, white-spotted fawns are born in June.
Stewardship Responsibility
References
Literature Cited AboveLegend: View Online Publication Mackie, R.J., K.L. Hamlin and D.F. Pac. 1982. Mule deer. Pp. 862-877 in: Wild mammals of North America. Chapman, J. A. and G. A. Feldhamer (eds.). John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 1147 pp. Pac, D.F. 1976. Distribution, movements, and habitat use during spring, summer, and fall by mule deer associated with Armstrong winter range, Bridger Mountains, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 121 p.
Additional ReferencesLegend: View Online Publication Do you know of a citation we're missing? [PRESI] Powder River Eagle Studies Incorporated. 1998b. Spring Creek Mine 1997 wildlife monitoring studies. Powder River Eagle Studies Incorporated. Gillete, WY. Adams, L. 1947. Observations on deer and hunters in the Fisher River district, Montana. USDA For. Serv., No. Rocky Mountain Exp. Sta. Res. Note 48. 4 pp. Adkins, R.J. 1991. An analysis of game damage and game damage complaints in Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 90 p. Allen, T.D.H. 2011. Wildlife guards for deer and Black Bear. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 71 p. American Gem Corporations. 1996. Application for an Operating Permit and Proposed Plan of Operations: Gem Mountain Sapphire Mine, Granite County, Montana. August 1996 Anaconda Minerals Company, and Camp, Dresser & McKee. 1981. Anaconda Stillwater Project 6-month environmental baseline report. CDM Project No. 3139. Vol. I Appendix. Jan. 15, 1981. Anderson, A.E. and O.C. Wallmo. 1984. Odocoileus hemionus. Mammalian Species 219:1-9. Anonymous. 1946. Trapping and transplanting mule deer. Montana Fish and Game Comm. 1945-46 Biennial Rep. Bailey, E. D. 1960. Behavior of the Rattlesnake mule deer on their winter range. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 110 pp. Ball, S. 1987. Mule deer use of agricultural lands in the Missouri Breaks. Pp 57-58 in: Proceedings of the Montana Chapter-The Wildlife Society Annual Meeting, Feb. 1987, Kalispell, Montana. Ball, S. K. 1988. Potential impacts of hydroelectric development on a mule deer population. Pp. 105-112 in Proceedings III: Issues and technology in the management of impacted wildlife. Thome Ecol. Inst., Boulder, Colorado. Bauer, Delane, 2002, 2002 Four Seasons Wildlife Study. Savage Mine Report, Richland County, Montana. Beak Consultants, Inc. 1983. Circle West wildlife studies, Meridian Exchange study area, McCone County, Montana. Progress report no. 3/4 to the Meridian Land & Mineral Company. 21 p. Beak Consultants, Inc. 1983. Wildlife. January 1983. In Stillwater Project Environmental Studies. Addendum A, Wildlife. Vol. I. Tech. Report No. 7. 1982. Bilbao, J.V. 2008. Predicting feeding site selection of mule deer on foothill and mountain rangelands. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 40 p. Boggs, Keith., , Field inventory of wildlife resources . . . WICHE Proj. No. D117. Spec. Oc./Habitat Type. Bray, R. O., C. L. Wambolt and R. G. Kelsey. 1991. Influence of sagebrush terpenoids on mule deer preference. J. Chem. Ecol. 17:2053-2062. Bray, R.O. 1990. The influence of selected Artemisia compounds on mule deer preference. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman MT: Montana State University. 68 p. Browman, L. G. 1957. Seasonal variations in the mule deer thyroid. Anatomical Record. 128(3): 1. Browman, L. G., and P. Hudson. 1957. Observations on the behavior of penned mule deer. J. Mammal. 38:247-253. Brown, D. L. 1946. Trapping and transplanting of white-tailed and mule deer in Montana. Montana Fish and Game Department Special Report. 50 pp. Bucsis, R.A. 1974. Ecological characteristics of the Armstrong mule deer winter range, Bridger Mountains, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 104 p. Butts, T.W., Western Technology and R.L. Eng. 1993. Continental Lime Indian Creek Mine, Townsend, MT. Life of Mine Wildlife Reconnaissance. In Life-of-Mine Amendment. Continental Lime, Inc., Indian Creek Mine & Plant. Vol. 2. October 13, 1992. Camel, W.R. 2007. Where does a deer cross a road? Road and landcover characteristics affecting deer crossing and mortality across the US 93 corridor on the Flathead Indian Reservation, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 193 p. Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc., 1990, Stillwater Chromite Project Baseline Data Report: Hydrology and Wildlife Monitoring, Hydrology - November 1988 through November 1989, Wildlife - November 1988 through February 1990. June 30, 1990 Casey, D., and P. Malta, June 1990, Long-Term Habitat Management Plan Elk and Mule Deer Winter Range Enhancement Firefighter Mountain and Spotted Bear Winter Ranges Chaffee, G. 1953. Investigations of deer mortality in the Blacktail Hills. Montana Fish and Game Dept. P-R Quarterly Report. April-June: 16-]9. Chapman, J.A., and G.A. Feldhamer. 1982. Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and economics. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. Chester, J.M. 1976. Human-wildlife interactions in the Gallatin Range, Yellowstone National Park, 1973-1974. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 114 p. Confluence Consulting Inc. 2010. Montana Department of Transportation Wetland Mitigation Monitoring Reports (various sites). MDT Helena, MT. Confluence Consulting Inc. 2011. Montana Department of Transportation Wetland Mitigation Monitoring Reports (various sites). MDT Helena, MT. Confluence Consulting Inc. 2012. Montana Department of Transportation Wetland Mitigation Monitoring Reports (various sites). MDT Helena, MT. Confluence Consulting Inc. 2013. Montana Department of Transportation Wetland Mitigation Monitoring Reports (various sites). MDT Helena, MT. Constan, K. 1967. Bighorn sheep range use, food habits and relationships to mule deer and elk in Gallatin Canyon. State of Montana, Project No. W-98-R-7-8. Constan, K.J. 1967. Food habits, range use and relationships of bighorn sheep to mule deer and elk in winter, Gallatin Canyon, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 43 p. Cooperrider, A. Y. 1969. Competition for food between mule deer and bighorn sheep on Rock Creek winter range, Montana. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula 92 pp. Cronin, M. A., M. E. Nelson, and D. F. Pac. 1991. Spatial heterogeneity of mitochondrial DNA and allozymes among populations of white-tailed deer and mule deer. J. Heredity 82:118-127. Cronin, M.A. 1986. Genetic relationships between White-tailed Deer, Mule Deer and other large mammals inferred from mitochondrial DNA analysis. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 49 p. Cyprus Industrial Minerals Co., Ennis, MT., 2000, Yellowstone Mine Permit Consolidation. Vols. I-III. Vol. III: Appendix. February 29, 2000. Decker Coal Company., 1991, Decker Coal Company West Pit Permit. Vol. 3. 26.4.304(10-11), 305, 306, and 307. Updated Rules Rewrite, July 1, 1991. Decker Coal Company., 1992, Decker Coal Company East Pit Permit. Vol. 7. Section 9 - Wildlife. Section 10 - AVF and Prime Farmland. July 1992. Dickson, D.C. 1991. Systematic wildlife observations on the Blackfoot-Clearwater Wildlife Management Area. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks. Missoula, MT. 14 pp. plus appendices and photographs. Dood, A. R. 1978. Summer movements, habitat use, and mortality of mule deer fawns in the Missouri River Breaks, Montana. State of MT, Proj. No. W-120-R-8, 9. Dood, A.R. 1978. Summer movements, habitat use, and mortality of mule deer fawns in the Missouri River Breaks, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 57 p. Dood, A.R. 1980. Terry Badlands nongame survey and inventory final report. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks and Bureau of Land Management, Helena, MT. 70 pp. Douglass, R. J. 1984. Distribution of elk, mule deer and moose in the vicinity of the proposed Beal project in western Montana. Unpubl. Rep., Montoro Gold Co., Reno, Nevada. Duncan, E.A. 1975. The ecology of curl-leaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt.) in Southwestern Montana with special reference to use by mule deer. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 87 p. Dusek, G. L. 1971. Range relationships of mule deer in the prairie habitat, north central Montana. State of MT, Proj. No. W-120-R-1, 2. Dusek, G. L. 1975. Range relations of mule deer and cattle in prairie habitat. J. Wildl. Manage. 39:605-616. Dusek, G.L. 1971. Range relationships of mule deer in prairie habitat, northcentral Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 63 p. Ecological Consulting Service (ECON), Helena, MT., 1972, Wildlife Investigations: 10 x 20 Mile Area, Colstrip, Montana. Project 9--01--A. Annual Report to Montana Power Company and Western Energy Company; December 1972 - December 1973. December 21, 1973. Ecological Consulting Service (ECON), Helena, MT., 1973, Wildlife Investigations: Areas A & B, Colstrip, Montana. Project 1--01--A. Annual Report to Montana Power Company and Western Energy Company; December 1972 - December 1973. December 21, 1973. Ecological Consulting Service (ECON), Helena, MT., 1973, Wildlife Investigations: Areas D & E, Colstrip, Montana. Project 13--01--A. Annual Report to Montana Power Company and Western Energy Company; December 1972 - December 1973. December 21, 1973. ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1975, Colstrip 10 x 20 Area wildlife and wildlife habitat annual monitoring report, 1975. Proj. 71-23-A. December 31, 1975. ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1976, Colstrip 10 x 20 Area wildlife and wildlife habitat annual monitoring report, 1976. Proj. 135-85-A. December 31, 1976. Econ, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1977, 1977 wildlife and wildlife habitat monitoring study, Peabody Coal Company Big Sky Mine. Proj. 161-85-A. November 30, 1977. ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1977, Colstrip 10 x 20 Area wildlife and wildlife habitat annual monitoring report, 1977. Proj. 164-85-A. December 31, 1977. ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1979, Annual wildllife report of the Colstrip Area for 1978. Proj. 195-85-A. April 6, 1979. ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1979, Annual wildllife report of the Colstrip Area for 1979, including a special raptor research study. Proj. 216-85-A. March 1, 1980. ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1979, Area B four-section wildlife report. August 3, 1979. Econ, Inc. 1988. Wildlife monitoring report, 1987 field season, Big Sky Mine. March 1988. In Peabody Mining and Reclamation Plan Big Sky Mine Area B. Vol. 8, cont., Tab 10 - Wildlife Resources. Appendix 10-1, 1987 Annual Wildlife Report. ECON, Inc., Helena, MT., 1987, Wildlife and habitat characterization, Paupers Dream Mine Project Site, Lewis & Clark and Jefferson Counties, Montana. June 25, 1987. In Pangea Mining Co., Inc., Paupers Dream Project. Econ, Inc., Helena, MT., 1991, Wildlife monitoring report: 1989 field season, Big Sky Mine. March 1991. Edwards, J.M. 1977. A survey of big game animals on a proposed strip mining site at Sarpy Creek in southeastern Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 63 p. Egan, J. L. 1960. Some relationships between mule deer and alfalfa production in Powder River County, Montana. Proc. West. Assoc. St. Game & Fish Comm. 40:232-240 Egan, J.L. 1957. Some relationships between mule deer and alfalfa production in Powder River County, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 34 p. Egan, J.l. 1971. Mule deer. pp-53-67 in T.W. Mussehl and F.W. Howell (eds.), Game Management in Montana. Montana Department of Fish and Game, Helena. Elliott, Joe C. and Hydrometrics, Inc., Helena, MT., 1994, Supplement to wildlife baseline investigation life-of-mine expansion plan: Regal Mine, Barretts Minerals, Inc., Madison County, Montana. August 2000. In Life-of Mine Expansion Plan: Barretts Minerals, Inc., Regal Mine, Madison County, Montana. Vol. 2. App. C: Baseline Wildlife Reconnaissance. December 1999. Endicott, C.L. 1996. Responses of riparian and stream ecosystems to varying timing and intensity of livestock grazing in central Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 115 p. Eng, R.L. 1976. Wildlife Baseline Study [for West Fork of the Stillwater and Picket Pin drainages] Eng, R.L. and R.J. Mackie. 1996. Supplemental wildlife data collection: McDonald Gold Project. Enk, E.A. 1999. Population dynamics of bighorn sheep on the Beartooth Wildlife Management Area, Montana. Ph.D. Dissertation. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 177 p. Espinosa, R.H.1987. Tabanid vectors of the arterial nematode, Elaeophora schneideri in southwestern Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 57 p. Eustace, C. D. 1971. Mule deer food habits and browse use study. Job Final Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-130-R-l and 2, Job. No. 1-7.1, Montana Fish and Game Dept., Helena. 25 pp. Farmer, Pat, and Dean Culwell, Westech, Inc. [Western Technology and Engineering], Helena, MT., 1981, Terrestrial wildlife reconnaissance. March 1981. Farmer, Patrick J., and Thomas W. Butts, Western Technology & Eng., Inc., Helena, MT., 1994, McDonald Project Terrestrial Wildlife Study, November 1989 - November 1993. April 1994. In McDonald Gold Project: Wildlife & Fisheries. [#18]. Seven-up Pete Joint Venture, Lincoln, MT. Unpub. No date. Farmer, Patrick. J., et al., Western Technology and Eng., Inc., Helena, MT., 1984, Montana Tunnels Project Baseline Terrestrial Wildlife Study. December 14, 1984. In Application for a Hard Rock Operating Permit, Montana Tunnels Project, Jefferson County, Montana. Vol. 3. Environmental Baseline Reports. (Centennial Minerals, Inc., Hydrometrics, 1984?) FaunaWest Wildlfife Consultants, Boulder, MT., 1997, Draft Environmental Assessment for management of black-tailed prairie dogs at Fort William Henry Harrison. June 1997. Firebaugh, J.E. 1969. Relationship of mule deer to livestock on summer range in the Pryor Mountains, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 55 p. Fjell, Alan K., 1986, Peabody Coal Company Big Sky Mine, Rosebud County, MT. Wildlife monitoring report: 1985 field season. March 1986. Fjell, Alan K., and Brian R. Mahan, compilers., 1984, Peabody Coal Company Big Sky Mine, Rosebud County, MT. Wildlife monitoring report: 1983 field season. February 1984. Fjell, Alan K., and Brian R. Mahan., 1985, Peabody Coal Company Big Sky Mine, Rosebud County, MT. Wildlife monitoring report: 1984 field season. February 1985. Fjell, Alan K., and Brian R. Mahan., 1987, Big Sky Mine, Rosebud County, MT. Wildlife monitoring report: 1986 field season. April 1987. Foresman, K.R. 2001. The wild mammals of Montana. American Society of Mammalogists, Special Publication Number 12. Lawrence, KS. 278 pp. Foresman, K.R. 2012. Mammals of Montana. Second edition. Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana. 429 pp. Fraas, W.W. 1992. Bitterbrush growth and reproductive character in relation to browsing in southwest Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 137 p. Freeman, W. G. 1976. Changes in Montana mule deer populations and management. Montana Dept. of Fish and Game. 6 pp. Fritzen, D.E. 1995. Ecology and behavior of Mule Deer on the Rosebud Coal Mine, Montana. Ph.D. Dissertation. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 143 p. Gabb, J. E. 1952. Stillwater River - mule deer aging and skeletal development. Montana Fish and Game Dept. P-R Quarterly Report. January-March:43-48. Gniadek, S. 1983. Southwest Glendive Wildlife Baseline Inventory. Miles City, Mont: Bureau of Land Management, Miles City District Office. 56 pp with appendices. Graham, Dean, and Craig Swick., 1977, A Field evaluation of the cyclone seeder for reducing Richardson ground squirrel populations causing damage in central Montana . August 1977. Greiser, K. C., and L. G. Browman. 1956. Total gonadotrophic potency of mule deer pituitaries. Endocrinology 58:206-211. Grieser, K.C. 1955. Gonadotrophic potency of mule deer pituitaries and the possible correlation with the reproductive cycle. M.S. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula. Griffiths, D.E. 1990. Green vegetation and fecal protein relationships in two southeastern Montana mule deer populations. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 99 p. Grigg, J.L. 2007. Gradients of predation risk affect distribution and migration of a large herbivore. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 94 p. Gross, J.A. 1998. Elk use of various sized cattle exclosures. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 40 p. Grove, A.J. 1998. Effects of Douglas fir establishment in southwestern Montana mountain big sagebrush communities. M. Sc.Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 150 p. Guenther, G. E., C. L. Wambolt and M. R. Frisina. 1993. Characteristics of bitterbrush habitats that influence canopy cover and mule deer browsing. J. Env. Manage. 31: in press. Guenther, G.E. 1989. Ecological relationships of bitterbrush communities on the Mount Haggin Wildlife Management Area. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 73 p. Hamlin, K. L. 1977. Population dynamics and habitat relationships of mule deer in the Bridger Mountains, Montana. 1955-1976. NW Sec., The Wildl. Soc., Kalispell. (Abstract) Hamlin, K. L. 1979. Cooperation by coyote pairs attacking mule deer fawns. Jour. Mammal. 60(4):849-850. Hamlin, K. L. et al. 1984. Relationships among mule deer fawn mortality, coyotes, and alternate prey species during summer. J. Wildl. Manage. 48(2):489-499. Hamlin, K. L., and R. J. Mackie. 1989. Mule deer in the Missouri River Breaks, Montana: a study of population dynamics in a fluctuating environment. Final Rep., Fed. Aid in Wildlife Restor. Proj. W-120R. Mont. Dept. Fish, Wildl. and Parks, Bozeman. 401 pp. Hamlin, K. L., and R. J. Mackie. 1991. Age-specific reproduction and mortality in female mule deer: implications to population dynamics. B. Bobek, K. Perzanowski, W. Regelin, eds., Global trends in wildlife management, in Proc. XVIIIth Congr. Int. Union Game Biolog., Krakow, Poland. Hamlin, K.L. 1974. Ecological relationships of mule deer in the Bridger Mountains, Montana, with special reference to daily and seasonal movements. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 65 p. Hamlin, K.L. 1982. Running away from home: a behavioral modification in adolescent mule deer designed to assuage social stresses associated with bureoning sibling densities. Pp. 36-39 in C. D. Eustace, comp., Proc. Mont. Chapt., The Wildl. Soc., Billings. 90 pp. Hansen, J. J. 1987. Effect of stock density on ground cover on a southwest Montana foothills rangeland. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 65 p. Hatier, K.G. 1995. Effects of helping behaviors on Coyote packs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. M Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 78 p. Hendricks, P. and M. Roedel. 2001. A faunal survey of the Centennial Valley Sandhills, Beaverhead County, Montana. Report to the U.S. Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena, MT. 44 p. Hoffman, T.L. 1996. An ecological investigation of mountain big sagebrush in the Gardiner Basin. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 84 p. Hoffmann, R.S. and D.L. Pattie. 1968. A guide to Montana mammals: identification, habitat, distribution, and abundance. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 133 p. Hood, B.R. 1995. A survey of free-ranging and captive wild ungulates for tuberculosis and other diseases. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 84 p. Hornaday, W. T. 1908. Diversions in picturesque gamelands, grand badlands and mule deer in Scribner's Magazine, July, 1908. 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