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Beaver - Castor canadensis
Other Names:
Ksik stakii (Blackfeet), North American Beaver
Native Species
Global Rank :
G5
State Rank :
S5
(see State Rank Reason below)
Agency Status
USFWS :
USFS :
BLM :
External Links
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Copyright Jeff Rice, all rights reserved. Audio file courtesy of the Acoustic Atlas at Montana State University (www.acousticatlas.org)
State Rank Reason (see State Rank above)
Species is relatively common within suitable habitat and widely distributed across portions of the state
Details on Status Ranking and Review
Beaver (Castor canadensis ) Conservation Status Review
Review Date = 05/03/2018
Range Extent
Score G - 200,000-2,500,000 km squared (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)
Comment 380,531 square Kilometers from Natural Heritage Program range maps
Long-term Trend
Score E - Relatively Stable (±25% change)
Comment While the species has undergone significant declines due to trapping, populations have recovered across its historic range.
Short-term Trend
Score F - Increasing. Increase of >10% in population, range, area occupied, and/or number or condition of occurrences
Comment Species continues to actively colonize areas from which it was extirpated
Threats
Score H - Unthreatened. Threats if any, when considered in comparison with natural fluctuation and change, are minimal or very localized, not leading to significant loss or degradation of populations or area even over a few decades’ time. (Severity, scope, and/or immediacy of threat considered Insignificant.)
Comment Species is harvested/controlled, local populations suffer from outbreaks of tularemia. Species has not recolonized all areas from which it was extirpated, but is expanding in both range and population. Existing populations secure and stable.
Intrinsic Vulnerability
Score B - Moderately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance over a period of several years (on the order of 5-20 years or 2-5 generations); or species has moderate dispersal capability such that extirpated populations generally become reestablished through natural recolonization (unaided by humans).
Comment Moderately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance within 5-20 years or 2-5 generations. Species has good dispersal ca
Environmental Specificity
Score D - Broad. Generalist. Broad-scale or diverse (general) habitat(s) or abiotic and/or biotic factors are used or required by the species, with all key requirements common in the generalized range of the species in the area of interest. If the preferred food(s) or breeding/nonbreeding microhabitat(s) become unavailable, the species switches to an alternative with no resulting decline in numbers of individuals or number of breeding attempts.
Comment Requires lentic or lotic waterbodies but this requirement aside, the species is found in a wide diversity of ecosystems and shows remarkable flexibly in its life history
Raw Conservation Status Score
Score
3.5 + 0 (geographic distribution) + 0.5 (environmental specificity) + 0.25 (short-term trend) + 1 (threats) = 5.25
General Description
The largest rodent in North America north of Panama. On land is a large, clumsy, hump-backed animal. In the water, becomes sleek and torpedo-shaped. Propels itself with powerful webbed hind feet. Beavers use their large dorsally flattened, scale-covered tail to maneuver in water. Slapping the tail on water surface is used as a signal of alarm. Split nail on the second hind toe is used for grooming. Incisors are large and continually growing. Fur is rich brown with black to reddish guard hairs. Under-fur is soft and extremely dense with excellent insulating qualities. Both sexes have a pair of anal glands and castor sacs located ventrally. Beavers emit anal gland secretions year round. Total length: 34 to 40 inches. Weight: 30 to 60 pounds. Builds stick and mud dams across streams. Mostly nocturnal. May build large conical houses at the edge of a lake or burrow into the bank for a den along rivers. Beaver life is based on a family unit consisting of a pair of adults, yearlings, and kits. The information in next section is from Hill (1982), Miller (1983), and Novak (1987a), unless otherwise indicated. The beaver is the largest North American rodent; most adults weigh 16 to 23 kg (35 to 50 pounds), rarely 32 to 38 kg (70 to 85 pounds) or more. Kits weigh about 0.5 kg or a little less (1 pound) at birth Hill (1982), when they are about 38 cm (15 inches) long Schwartz and Schwartz (1981). The relationship between beaver age and mass is roughly as follows: less than 0.5 years old, less than 5 kg (11 pounds); 0.5 to 1.5 years old, 6 to 11 kg (13 to 24 pounds); 1.5 to 2.5 years old, 10 to 13 kg (22 to 29 pounds); greater than 2.5 years old, greater than 14 kg (31 pounds). The preceding weight-age data are often accurate, but it must be realized that weight is influenced by various factors other than age. The total length of a beaver varies with age as follows: yearlings are 26 to 34 inches; adults of 2 to 3 years, 35 to 40 inches; older adults, 47+ inches (maximum about 4.5 feet) in the warmer months and generally ends at age 4 to 5 years. Pelage color varies geographically from yellowish-brown to black (this range of color may be found in a single watershed). There is one annual molt. The pelt is prime from late fall to early spring. The sexes are difficult to distinguish externally. Hodgen (1978) provided information on sexing beavers by their behavior in a live trap. See Novak (1987a) for additional references on sexing methods.
Diagnostic Characteristics
River Otter - tail covered with fur. Muskrat - smaller, tail slender. An inexperienced observer could mistake a Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus ), Round-tailed Muskrat (Neofiber alleni ) or a Nutria (Myocastor coypus ) for a Beaver, but these other rodents do not have a broad flattened tail.
Species Range
Montana Range
Range Descriptions
Native
Western Hemisphere Range
Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database
Number of Observations: 10359
(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version)
Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density
Recency
(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)
Habitat
Occupies a wide variety of habitats in North America. Water and associated woody vegetation are the most essential components of beaver habitat. Ideal beaver living sites include ponds, small lakes, meandering streams, and rivers.
Ecological Systems Associated with this Species
Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
How Associations Were Made
We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for
vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use.
In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system.
However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system,
even if point observations were associated with that system.
Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature.
The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association.
If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.
Suggested Uses and Limitations
Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning.
These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at:
mtnhp.org/requests ) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists.
Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales.
Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade.
Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections).
Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.
Literature Cited
Adams, R.A. 2003. Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. 289 p.
Dobkin, D. S. 1992. Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34. Missoula, MT.
Foresman, K.R. 2012. Mammals of Montana. Second edition. Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana. 429 pp.
Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998. Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates. Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT. 1302 p.
Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young. 1999. Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32. 72 p.
Maxell, B.A. 2000. Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species. Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1. Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana. 161 p.
Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath. 2004. Amphibians and reptiles of Montana. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.
Commonly Associated with these Ecological SystemsWetland and Riparian Systems
Occasionally Associated with these Ecological SystemsForest and Woodland Systems
Wetland and Riparian Systems
Food Habits
Beavers are strict herbivores. Beavers eat a variety of woody and herbaceous species. Willows, mountain alder, and aspen are important foods. Will also consume herbaceous vegetation during summer. Much of the woody vegetation beavers cut is not used for food. Caches woody vegetation near shore for winter food.
Reproductive Characteristics
Breeds from January through March. Two to four young are born after a 105- to 107-day gestation period. One litter per year is produced. Two-year-olds are eventually driven from or leave the parental home.
Management
Beaver management and the role of beaver in riparian restoration in Montana is extensively addressed by
Ritter et al. (2023) , including sections on conflict management, land management changes needed to address beave restoration and management, beaver mimicry, encouraging natural colonization, and beaver transplantation.
References
Literature Cited AboveLegend: View Online Publication Hill, E.P. 1982. Beaver. Pages 256-281 in J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, editors. Wild Mammals of North America: biology, management, and economics. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 1147pp. Hodgdon, H.E. 1978. Social dynamics and behavior within an unexploited beaver (Castor canadensis) population. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. 292 p. Miller, J.E. 1983. Beavers. Prevention and control of wildlife damage. Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Agricultural and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Novak, M. 1987. Beaver. Pp. 282-312 in: M. Novak, J.A. Baker, M.E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds. Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America. Ministry Nat. Res., Ontario. 1150 pp. Ritter, T., M. McGree, D. Schmetterling, C. Gower, V. Boccadori. 2023. Beavers and their role in riparian restoration in Montana. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks White Paper, Version 1.0. 165 p. Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1981. The wild mammals of Missouri. Revised edition. University of Missouri Press and Department of Conservation. Columbia and London. 356 pp.
Additional ReferencesLegend: View Online Publication Do you know of a citation we're missing? Adams, A.K. 1953. Some psycho-chemical effects of beaver dams upon Michigan trout streams in the Watersmeet area. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Adelman, E.B. 1979. A survey of the nongame mammals in the Upper Rattlesnake Creek drainage of western Montana. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 129 pp. Aldous, M. C. 1955. A tool for beaver dam removal. J. WildI. Manage. 19: 153-154. Aldous, S.E. 1938. Beaver food utilization studies. Journal of Wildlife Management 2: 215-222. Aleksiuk, M. 1968. Scent-mound communication, territoriality, and population regulation in beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl). Journal of Mammalogy 49(4): 759-762. Aleksiuk, M. 1970. The seasonal food regime of arctic beavers. Ecology 51: 264-270. Aleksiuk, M. and I.M. Cowan. 1969. Aspects of energy expenditure in the beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) at the northern limit of its distribution. Canadian Journal of Zoology 47(4): 471-481. Aleksiuk, M. and I.M. Cowan. 1969. The winter metabolic depression in arctic beavers (Castor canadensis Kuhl) with comparisons to California beavers. Canadian Journal of Zoology 47(5): 965-979. Allen, A.W. 1983. Habitat suitability index models: beaver. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-82/10.30. 20pp. Allen, T.D.H. 2011. Wildlife guards for deer and Black Bear. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 71 p. Allred, M. 1986. Beaver behavior. Happy Camp, California: Naturegraph Publishers, Inc. 110p. Alt, Kurt, 1984, II Game Bird and Fur (Small Game) Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. Region Two Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-15, Job No. 2, July 1, 1983 - June 30, 1984. Alt, Kurt, John E. Firebaugh, Lyn S. Nielsen, and Robert Henderson, 1985, II Game Bird and Fur (Small Game) Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. Region Two Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-16, Job No. 2, July 1, 1984 - June 30, 1985. Alt, Kurt, John E. Firebaugh, Lyn S. Nielsen, and Robert Henderson, 1987, II Game Bird and Fur (Small Game) Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. Region Two Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-18, Job No. 2, July 1, 1986 - June 30, 1987. Alt, Kurt., John E. Firebaugh, Lyn S. Nielsen, and Robert Henderson, 1986, Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. II Game Bird and Fur (Small Game) Survey and Inventory. Region Two Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-17, Job No. 2, July 1, 1985 - June 30, 1986. Anaconda Minerals Company, and Camp, Dresser & McKee. 1981. Anaconda Stillwater Project 6-month environmental baseline report. CDM Project No. 3139. Vol. I Appendix. Jan. 15, 1981. Anonymous. 1946. Trapping and transplanting beaver. Montana Fish and Game Comm. Biennial Report. Anonymous. 1989. Improved drain for beaver ponds. The Habitat Express, U.S. Forest Service, Ogden, Utah. Apple, L.L. 1983. The use of beavers in riparian/aquatic habitat restoration in a cold desert, gully cut stream system: a case history. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting American Fisheries Society, Laramie, Wyoming: 29-35. Apple, L.L. 1984. Riparian habitat restoration in cold desert, gully-cut stream systems: an innovative, cost effective, ecological approach. In: Transactions of the 49th North American wildlife and natural resources conference; 1984 March 23-28; Boston, MA. Washington, DC: Wildlife Management Institute (Unpaged). Poster Session. Apple, L.L. 1985. Riparian habitat restoration and beaver. In: Riparian ecosystems and their management: reconciling conflicting uses. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, General Technician Report RM-120. Apple, L.L., B.H. Smith, J.D. Dunder, and B.W. Baker. 1984. The use of beavers for riparian/aquatic habitat restoration of cold desert, gully-cut stream systems in southwestern Wyoming. In: Proceedings, American Fisheries Society/Wildlife Society joint chapter meeting; 1984 February 8-10; Logan, UT. (Publisher and city unknown): 123-130. Arner, D.H. 1963. Production of duck food in beaver ponds. Journal of Wildlife Management 27: 76-81. Arner, D.H. and G.R. Hepp. 1989. Beaver pond wetlands: a southern perspective. In: L.M. Smith et al., editors. Habitat management for migrating waterfowl in North America. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock: 117-128. Arner, D.H. and J.S. Dubose. 1980. The impact of the beaver on the environment and economics in the southeastern United States. Proceedings of International Wildlife Conference 14: 241-247. Arner, D.H., J. Baker, D. Wesley, and B. Herring. 1969. An inventory and study of beaver impounded water in Mississippi. Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game and Fish Commission 23: 110-128. Atwater, M. M. 1939. South Fork (Montana) beaver survey. J. Wildl. Manage. 4: 100-103. Atwater, M.M. 1940. South Fork (Montana) beaver survey: 1939. Journal of Wildlife Management 4: 100-103. Avery, E.L. 1983. A bibliography of beaver, trout, and wildlife, and forest relationships. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Technical Bulletin No. 137. 23pp. Avery, E.L. 1992. Effects of removing beaver dams upon a northern Wisconsin brook trout stream. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of research, Fish Research Section, Study 406, Madison. Bailey, R.W. and R.F. Stephens. 1951. Effects of beavers on fish. West Virginia Conservation, September 1951: 1-7. Barnes, D. M. and A. U. Mallik. 2001. Effects of Beaver, Castor canadensis, Herbivory on Streamside Vegetation in a Northern Ontario Watershed. The Canadian Field Naturalist 115: 9-19. Barnes, D.M. and A.U. Mallik. 1996. Use of woody plants in the construction of beaver dams in northern Ontario. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74: 1781-1786. Barnes, D.M. and A.U. Mallik. 1997. Habitat factors influencing beaver dam establishment in a northern Ontario watershed. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 1371-1377. Barnes, W.J. and E. Dibble. 1986. The effects of beaver in riverbank froest succession. Canadian Journal of Botany 66: 40-44. Basey, J. M. and S. H. Jenkins. 1995. Influences of predation risk and energy maximization on food selection by beavers (Castor Canadensis). Canadian Journal of Zoology 73: 2197-2208. Basey, J.M., S.H. Jenkins, and G.C. Miller. 1990. Food selection by beavers in relation to inducible defenses of Populus tremuloides. Oikos 59: 57. Basey, J.M., S.H. Jenkins, and P.E. Busher. 1988. Optimal central place foraging by beavers: tree-size selection in relation to defensive chemicals of quaking aspen. Oecologia 6: 278. Bates, J.W. 1963. The effects of beaver on stream flow. Departmental Information Bulletin No. 63-13, Federal Aid Completion Report. Utah State Department of Fish and Game. Baxter, R.M. 1977. Environmental effects of dams and impoundments. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8: 255-283. Beak Consultants, Inc. 1983. Wildlife. January 1983. In Stillwater Project Environmental Studies. Addendum A, Wildlife. Vol. I. Tech. Report No. 7. 1982. Beard, E.B. 1953. The importance of beaver in waterfowl management at the Seney National Wildlife Refuge. Journal of Wildlife Management 17: 398-436. Beaver Advisory Committee. 2017 (revised). Utah beaver management plan. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, DWR Publication 17-20. 29 p. Beer, J.R. 1955. Movements of tagged beaver. Journal of Mammalogy 19: 492-493. Beier, P. and R.H. Barrett. 1987. Beaver habitat use and impact in Truckee River basin, California. Journal of Wildlife Management 51: 794-799. Bell, J. F., C. R. Owen, W. L. Jellison, G. J. Moore, and E. O. Baker. 1962. Epizootic tularemia in pen-raised beavers, and field trials of vaccines. Am. J. Vet. Res. 23(95): 884-888. Belovsky, G.E. 1984. Summer diet optimization by beaver. American Midland Naturalist 11: 209. Bergerund, A.T. and D.R. Miller. 1977. Population dynamics of Newfoundland beaver. Canadian Journal of Zoology 55: 1480-1492. Bergstrom, D. 1985. Beavers: biologists "rediscover" a natural resource. Forestry Research West (Fort Collins, CO): USDA Forest Service; October: 1-5. Bhat, M., R. Huffaker, et al. 1993. Controlling forest damage by dispersive beaver populations: Centralized optimal management strategy. Ecological Applications 3(3): 518-530. Bilby, R.E. 1981. Role of organic debris dams in regulating the export of dissolved and particulate matter from a forested watershed. Ecology 62: 1234. Bilby, R.E. 1984. Removal of woody debris may affect stream channel stability. Journal of Forestry 82: 609-612. Bilby, R.E. and G.E. Likens. 1980. Importance of organic debris dams in the structure and function of stream ecosystems. Ecology 61(5): 1107-1113. Bishir, J., R.A. Lancia, and H.E. Hodgdon. 1983. 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Bradt, G.W. 1947. Michigan beaver management. Michigan Department of Conservation, Lansing. 56pp. Brady, C.A. and G.E. Svendsen. 1981. Social behavior in a family of beaver, Castor canadensis. Biology of Behavior 6: 99-114. Brayton, D.S. 1984. The beaver and the stream. Journal of Soil and Conservation 39(2): 108-109. Brazell, R.E. and G.W. Workman. 1977. A preliminary survey on beaver (Castor canadensis) in Canyonlands National Park, Utah. Encyclia. 54(1): 25-27. Brenner, F.J. 1962. Food consumed by beavers in Crawford County, Pennsylvania. Journal of Wildlife Management 26: 104-107. Brooks, R.P. 1977. Induced sterility of the adult female beaver (Castor canadensis) and colony fecundity. M.S thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. 90pp. Brooks, R.P., M.W. Fleming, and J.J. Kennelly. 1980. Beaver colony response to fertility control: evaluating a concept. Journal of Wildlife Management 44: 568-575. Broschart, M.R., C.A. Johnston, and R.J. Naiman. 1989. Predicting beaver colony density in boreal landscapes. Journal of Wildlife Management 53: 929-934. Brown, D.J., W.A. Hubert, and S.H. Anderson. 1996. Beaver ponds create wetland habitat for birds in mountains of southeastern Wyoming. Wetlands 16: 127-133. Brown, J.H. 1995. Organisms as engineers: a useful framework for studying effects on ecosystems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10: 51-52. Brown, M.K. and G.R. Parsons. 1979. Waterfowl production on beaver flowages in a part of northern New York. New York Fish and Game Journal 26: 142-153. Brown, M.K. and G.R. Parsons. 1982. Reliability of fall aerial censuses for locating active beaver colonies in northern New York. New York Fish and Game Journal 29: 204-206. Brown, R.L. 1960. Fur resource surveys and investigations: beaver population and distribution trends-aerial survey. Montana Fish and Game Department, Project # MONT. W-049-R-09/W.K.P.L.03/JOB B. 112p. Bryant, M.D. 1984. The role of beaver dams as coho salmon habitat in southeastern Alaska streams. Pages 183-192. In: Walton, J.M. and D.D. Houston, editors. Proceedings of the Olympic wild fish conference. Peninsula College, Fisheries Technology Program, Port Angeles, Washington. Buck, C.L. 1939. Pattern correlation of mammalian teeth as a means of identification. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 55 p. Buckley, J.L. 1950. The ecology and economics of the beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) with a plan for its management on the Huntington Wildlife Forest Station. Ph.D. thesis, State University New York, Syracuse. 251pp. Buckley, J.L. and W.L. Libby. 1955. Growth rates and age determination in Alakan beaver. Transactions of the 20th North American Wildlife Conference, Washington. Pages 495-507. Buech, R. R. 1983. Modification of the bailey live trap for beaver. Wildlife Society Bulletin 11: 66-68. Buech, R.R. 1984. Ontogeny and diurnal cycle of fecal reigestion in the North American beaver (Castor canadensis). Journal of Mammalogy 65: 347-350. Buech, R.R. 1995. Sex differences in behavior of beavers living in near-boreal lake habitat. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73: 2133-2143. Buech, R.R., D.J. Rugg, and N.L. Miller. 1989. Temperature in beaver lodges and bank dens in a near-boreal environment. Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 1061. Bullock, J.F. and D.H. Arner. 1985. Beaver damage to nonimpounded timber in Mississippi. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 9: 137-140. Bush, A.O. and W.M. Samuel. 1981. A review of helminth communities in beaver (Castor spp.) with a survey of Castor candensis in Alberta, Canada. In: Chapman, J.A. and D. Pursley, eds. Proceedings, worldwide furbearer conference; 1980 August 8-11; Frostburg, MD. Frostburg, MD: Worldwide Furbearer Conference, Inc.: 678-689. Busher, P.E. 1975. Movements and activities of beavers, Castor canadensis, on Sagehen Creek, California. M.A. thesis, San Francisco State University, California. 86pp. Busher, P.E. 1983. Interactions between beavers in a montane population in California. Acta Zoologica Fennica. 174: 109-110. Busher, P.E. 1987. Population parameters and family composition of beaver in California. Journal of Mammalogy 68: 860. Busher, P.E. 1991. Food caching behavior by the North American beaver, Castor canadensis, in western Massachusetts. Pages 111-114. In: Bobek, B., K. Perzanowski, and W. Regelin (eds), Global Trends in Wildlife Management. Transactions of the 18th IUGB Congress, Swiat Press, Krakow-Warszawa, Poland. Busher, P.E. 1996. Food caching behavior of beavers (Castor canadensis)-selection and use of woody species. American Midland Naturalist 135: 343-348. Busher, P.E. and S.H. Jenkins. 1985. Behavioral patterns of a beaver family in California. Biology of Behavior 10(1): 41-54. Busher, P.E., R.J. Warner, J. Randall, and S.H. Jenkins. 1983. 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