Montana Field Guide

Help

Montana Field Guides

Home - Other Field Guides
- Kingdom - Animals - Animalia
  - Phylum - Vertebrates - Craniata
    - Class - Birds - Aves
      - Order - Songbirds - Passeriformes
        
        Family - Warblers - Parulidae
        
        Species - Black-and-white Warbler - Mniotilta varia

Black-and-white Warbler - Mniotilta varia

Potential Species of Concern
Native Species

Global Rank: G5
State Rank: S4B
(see State Rank Reason below)

Agency Status
USFWS: MBTA
USFS:
BLM:
PIF:

External Links

Listen to an Audio Sample

State Rank Reason (see State Rank above)

Species is somewhat common within appropriate habitat but faces several threats and appears to be declining.

Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia) Conservation Status Summary
State Rank: S4B
Review Date = 12/26/2023
How we calculate Conservation Status

See the complete Conservation Status Report

General Description

Distinctly striped in black-and white plumage with a slightly decurved bill for bark foraging, the Black-and-white Warbler moves vertically along tree trunks, exhibiting characteristics generally attributed to nuthatches. The adult body length ranges from 11 to 13 cm, with an average wingspan of 21 cm. Body mass ranges from 8.8 to 15.2 grams, and bill length from 10.0 to 13.7 mm. The female is the smaller of the two sexes. Males, exhibiting darker, more contrasted markings than females in both breeding and non-breeding plumages, are defined by conspicuous black and white coloration. In breeding plumage, the male crown has a broad white median stripe, black sides, and a broad white superciliary stripe that extends to the nape. The lores and ear coverts are black, while the submustachial stripe is white above a black throat with black and white streaked sides of the neck. A white eye-ring contrasts with black ear coverts. The upper and underparts are streaked with black and white, the underparts being the more distinct and boldly marked. The wings are black with two evident wing bars. The feathers of this warbler's truncate tail are dull black marked with white, revealing white tail spots. The female's breeding plumage is similar to the males, but with pale gray lores and ear coverts and less contrasting black and white markings overall. A narrow, black eye stripe, white throat, and a less defined streaking on the back also distinguish the female from the male. Additionally, the female's tail spots are less distinct and a faint buff wash on the flanks and sides of the throat is generally present (Kricher 1995). The eyes have a brown iris. The feet in the juveniles are a pinkish-buff, becoming darker to black with age.

The vocalization of the Black-and-white Warbler is described as a thin, high-pitched two syllable squeaky "weesee, weesee, weesee," or "squeaky, squeaky, squeaky," repeated upwards of ten times (Kricher 1995). One of the highest pitched of the wood warblers, the song of the Black-and-white Warbler is described as resembling the sound of a wet rag wiped repeatedly across glass (Bent 1953, Kricher 1995). During breeding, a variation of the primary song is of a longer, faster, and more varied pitch (Bent 1953). Although varied, the call note of this species can be described as a sharp "chip," "pit," or sharp rattling "stick" (Terres 1980, Sibley 2000).

For a comprehensive review of the conservation status, habitat use, and ecology of this and other Montana bird species, please see Marks et al. 2016, Birds of Montana.

Diagnostic Characteristics

The Black-and-white Warbler is distinguished from similar warbler species by its distinctive black and white plumage and its nuthatch-like foraging behavior. Few other wood warblers forage in this manner, and those that do are not black and white in coloration. The two other black and white warblers in Montana, the Blackpoll Warbler and the Black-throated Gray Warbler, are noticeably different in plumage. The Blackpoll Warbler has an un-striped black crown and white cheek and throat, while the Black-throated Gray Warbler has a bright yellow spot in front of each eye, a solid black (or black and gray) un-striped head, and a mostly gray, un-striped back (Kricher 1995, Sibley 2000). Neither of these two species possess a decurved bill (Sibley 2000).

Species Range

Montana Range Range Descriptions

All Ranges

Summer

Migratory

(Click legend blocks to view individual ranges)

Western Hemisphere Range

Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database

Number of Observations: 525

(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version) Map Help and Descriptions

Relative Density

Recency

SUMMER (Feb 16 - Dec 14)

Direct Evidence of Breeding

Indirect Evidence of Breeding

No Evidence of Breeding

WINTER (Dec 15 - Feb 15)

Regularly Observed

Not Regularly Observed

(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)

Migration

Less dependent upon flying insects, the Black-and-white Warbler generally arrives earlier in the spring and stays later in the fall than other warbler species (Johnsgard 1986). Birds have been recorded in Montana and southern Alberta from early May through early September. May is the earliest month recorded for Black-and-white Warbler observations in Montana. The majority of the latest season records are for August, although one record just south of Ninepipe National Wildlife Refuge indicates an individual present in October (Montana Bird Distribution Committee 2012).

Habitat

Information on habitat use in Montana is limited. Existing records indicate observations in riparian habitat and woody draws, those of mixed deciduous and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), in the eastern part if the state (Skaar unpublished data). One observation record indicates a female feeding on Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) northeast of Helena, while numerous records exist for the deciduous habitat in the town park in Westby, as well as that of several backyards, specifically in the northeast portion of the state (Montana Bird Distribution Committee 2012).

In general, the Black-and-white Warbler inhabits young, medium-aged and mature deciduous and mixed forests during the breeding season (Bushman and Therres 1988, Kricher 1995). Studies of habitat selection have yielded conflicting results that appear to be due to geography, as well as variations in forest type and stand age. In the southern part of its range, this species appears to be most closely associated with relatively closed-canopied forests with low shrub density (Conner et al. 1983, Crawford et al. 1981, Noon et al. 1980, Wilson et al. 1995). In aspen forests in Alberta, however, stands with high shrub density were avoided (Westworth and Telfer 1993). Black-and-white Warblers were associated with high tree density and high canopy volume (indicative of mid- to late-successional forests) in mixed forests of central Ontario (Clark et al. 1983). The Black-and-white Warbler typically nests on the ground, often adjacent to a tree, shrub, rock, stump or log, under a shrub or dead branches, or, more rarely, atop stumps (Bent 1953, Kricher 1995).

A wide variety of habitats are used during the non-breeding season, from early successional disturbed areas to mature forests (Kricher 1995). Caribbean habitats utilized include coastal forest, dry interior forest, wet forest, forest edge, pine woods, riparian areas, wetlands, urban habitats that provide plant cover, and some open areas (Arendt 1992). Cacao, citrus, mango, shade coffee, and pine plantations in Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Costa Rica are also selected (Robbins et al. 1992). Even though it showed a preference for undisturbed habitats, particularly forest, this species is considered a habitat generalist in western Mexico (Hutto 1992). Primary forest is preferred to other habitat types in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Greenberg 1992, Lynch 1989) and in Veracruz, Mexico (Rappole et al. 1992). In the Virgin Islands, they exhibited a preference for moist forest (90.5% of detections) over other habitat types (Askins et al. 1992).

Ecological Systems Associated with this Species

Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
How Associations Were Made
We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
1. Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
2. Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
3. Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
4. Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use. In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system. However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system, even if point observations were associated with that system. Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature. The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association. If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.

Suggested Uses and Limitations
Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning. These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at: mtnhp.org/requests) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists. Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales. Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade. Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections). Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.

Literature Cited
- Adams, R.A. 2003. Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. 289 p.
- Dobkin, D. S. 1992. Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34. Missoula, MT.
- Foresman, K.R. 2012. Mammals of Montana. Second edition. Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana. 429 pp.
- Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998. Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates. Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT. 1302 p.
- Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young. 1999. Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32. 72 p.
- Maxell, B.A. 2000. Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species. Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1. Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana. 161 p.
- Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath. 2004. Amphibians and reptiles of Montana. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.

Commonly Associated with these Ecological Systems
Forest and Woodland Systems
- Great Plains Wooded Draw and Ravine
- Rocky Mountain Foothill Limber Pine - Juniper Woodland
Wetland and Riparian Systems
- Great Plains Floodplain
- Great Plains Riparian
Occasionally Associated with these Ecological Systems
Human Land Use
- High Intensity Residential
- Low Intensity Residential

Food Habits

Foraging principally by creeping along tree trunk and branches, Black-and-white Warblers also foliage glean (Bent 1953, Kricher 1995). The main food items are chiefly insects, including beetles (Coleoptera), caterpillars and moths (Lepidoptera), ants and other Hymenoptera, flies (Diptera), and bugs (Hemiptera), and may include spiders (Arachnida) and harvestmen (Phalangida) (Bent 1953). Lepidopteran larvae are important prey during spring migration (Graber and Graber 1983). The remains of a small lizard were found in the stomach of one Texas specimen, indicating further variety in their diet (Oberholser 1974).

Ecology

Little information exists for this species in Montana.

In quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) forest in Alberta, male pairing success was lower in forest fragments (56%) than in continuous forest (80%) but due to small sample sizes, the difference was not statistically significant (Sodhi and Paszkowski 1997). The Black-and-white Warbler occurs commonly in small, mixed species flocks of warblers in the Virgin Islands in winter where density in moist forest was less than 1 per hectare on St. Thomas and 1 to 2 per hectare on St. John (Ewert and Askins 1991). Conflicting reports of winter territoriality exist (Faaborg and Arendt 1984, Morton 1980).

Site fidelity is exhibited on the wintering grounds in Puerto Rico where 22% of banded birds were recaptured at the study site. The average time between banding and recapture was 1.9 years; the longest interval was 4 years (Faaborg and Arendt 1984). Twenty percent of birds captured in Cuba were birds banded there the previous year (Gonzalez-Alonso et al. 1992).

The average annual adult survivorship is estimated to be 71%, with the oldest known individual aged at 11 years, 3 months old (Klimkiewicz et al. 1983, Kricher 1995).

Known parasites on Black-and-white Warblers include blood parasites (Haemoproteus spp. and Leucocytozoon spp.), feather mites, a louse species (Myrsidea incerta), and one fly species (Ornithoica confluens) (Bent 1953, Kricher 1995). Bent (1953) indicates maggots destroyed a nestful of young.

Reproductive Characteristics

One record of direct evidence of breeding was recorded in Valley County, but details of the nesting event appear lost (Skaar unpublished data, Montana Bird Distribution Committee 2012). Additional observations that indicate behavior suggesting breeding have been recorded in Roosevelt, Sheridan, Daniels, Dawson, Richland, Rosebud, and Carter counties (Skaar unpublished data, Montana Bird Distribution Committee 2012), but no details on these records are documented. No other information is available on the reproductive habits of the Black-and-white Warbler in Montana.

In general, breeding begins as early as mid-April at southern latitudes and as late as late July at northern latitudes. The female builds the cup-shaped nest of grasses, dry leaves, strips of inner bark, and pine needles lined with finer grasses, rootlets, hair or mosses (Terres 1980, Baicich and Harrison 1997). Clutch size is usually five, ranging from 4 to 6 eggs. Eggs are laid daily until the clutch is complete. Eggs are short, sub elliptical, and range in color from white or cream-white, sometimes pale bluish or greenish-white, with finely speckled pigments of brown, and occasionally lavender and pale lilac, encircling the larger end. Dimensions average 15.50 to 18.46 mm by 13.02 to 13.64 mm with average weights of 0.076 gram (Kricher 1995).

Incubation, which requires 10 to 12 days, begins when the penultimate or last egg is laid and is conducted by the female only. When threatened, females may perform a distraction display described as the "rodent run," for its hunched posture and tail drag (Kricher 1995). The young are fed by both parents and leave the nest at 8 to 12 days post hatching. This species is single brooded, though double broods are suspected (Kricher 1995). In Arkansas, 73.7% of 19 nests were successful (fledged at least one young) (Martin 1993). Age at sexual maturity is unknown (Kricher 1995).

Management

No management activities in Montana specific to the Black-and-white Warbler are documented.

Stewardship Responsibility

Based on the Montana Natural Heritage Program's latest predicted habitat suitability model

Total species' range in Montana	164,546 km²	(43% of Montana)
Area predicted to have some level of suitable habitat	72,176 km²	(19% of Montana)

Stewardship responsibility for the predicted area of suitable habitat can be broken down as follows

	Total Suitable	Optimal Suitability	Moderate Suitability	Low Suitability
Federal	15%	<1%	1%	14%
State	6%	<1%	<1%	6%
Local	<1%	<1%	<1%	<1%
Conservation Lands/Easements	1%	<1%	<1%	1%
Private/Tribal/Unknown	77%	1%	5%	71%

See the Habitat Suitability for Biodiversity task in Map Viewer for a more detailed look at stewardship responsibilities within a variety of local jurisdictions.

References

Literature Cited AboveLegend: View Online Publication
- Arendt, W.J., and collaborators. 1992. Status of North American migrant landbirds in the Caribbean region: A summary. Pages 143-71 in J.M. Hagan III, and D.W. Johnston (editors). Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds. Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington, D.C. xiii + 609 pp.
- Askins, R.A., D.N. Ewert, and R.L. Norton. 1992. Abundance of wintering migrants in fragmented and continuous forests in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Pages 197-206 IN Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds (J. M. Hagan and D. W. Johnston, Eds.). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
- Baicich, P.J. and C.J.O. Harrison. 1997. A guide to the nests, eggs, and nestlings of North American birds. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.
- Bent, A.C. 1953. Life histories of North American wood warblers. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 203. Washington, D.C.
- Bushman, E.S., and G.D. Therres. 1988. Habitat management guidelines for forest interior breeding birds of coastal Maryland. Maryland Dept. Natural Resources, Wildlife Tech. Publ. 88-1. 50 pp.
- Clark, K., D. Euler, and E. Armstrong. 1983. Habitat asoociations of breeding birds in cottage and natural areas in central Ontario. Wilson Bull. 95: 77-96.
- Conner, R.N., J.G. Dickson, B.A. Locke, and C.A. Segelquist. 1983. Vegetation characteristics important to common songbirds in East Texas. Wilson Bulletin 95:349-361.
- Crawford, H.S., R.G. Hooper, and R.W. Titterington. 1981. Songbird population response to silvicultural practices in central Appalachian hardwoods. Journal of Wildlife Management 45:680-92.
- Ewert, D.N., and R.A. Askins. 1991. Flocking behavior of migratory warblers in winter in the Virgin Islands. Condor 93:864-868.
- Faaborg, J. and W.J. Arendt. 1984. Population sizes and philopatry of winter resident warblers in Puerto Rico. Journal of Field Ornithology 55:376-378.
- Gonzalez-Alonso, H., M.K. McNicholl, P.B. Hamel, M. Acosta, E. Godinez, J. Hernandez, D. Rodriguez, J.A. Jackson, C.M. Grego, R.D. McRae, and J. Sirois. 1992. A cooperative bird-banding project in Peninsula de Zapata, Cuba, 1988-1989. Pages 131-142 IN Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds (J. M. Hagan and D. W. Johnston, Eds.). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
- Graber, J.W. and R.R. Graber. 1983. Feeding rates of warblers in spring. Condor 1985:139-150.
- Greenberg, R. 1992. Forest migrants in non-forest habitats on the Yucatan Peninsula. Pages 273-286 IN Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds (J. M. Hagan and D. W. Johnston, Eds.). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
- Hutto, R.L. 1992. Habitat distribution of migratory landbird species in western Mexico. Pp. 221-239 in J. M. Hagan and D. W. Johnston, eds. Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
- Klimkiewicz, M. K., R. B. Clapp, and A. G. Futcher. 1983. Longevity records of North American birds: Remizidae through Parulinae. Journal of Field Ornithology 54:287-294.
- Kricher, J.C. 1995. Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia). Species Account Number 158. The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology; Retrieved 3/25/2008 from The Birds of North America Online database
- Lynch, J.F. 1989. Distribution of overwintering Nearctic migrants in the Yucatan Peninsula, I: general patterns of occurrence. Condor 91:515-544.
- Marks, J.S., P. Hendricks, and D. Casey. 2016. Birds of Montana. Arrington, VA. Buteo Books. 659 pages.
- Martin, T.E. 1993. Nest predation among vegetation layers and habitat types: revising the dogmas. American Naturalist 141:897-913.
- Montana Bird Distribution Committee. 2012. P.D. Skaar's Montana bird distribution. 7th Edition. Montana Audubon, Helena, Montana. 208 pp. + foldout map.
- Morton, E.S. 1980. Adaptations to seasonal changes by migrant land birds in the Panama Canal zone. Pages 437-453 IN Migrant birds in the neotropics: ecology, distribution, and conservation (A. Keast and E. S. Morton, eds.). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
- Noon, B.R., D.K. Dawson, D.B. Inkly, C.S. Robbins, and S.H. Anderson. 1980. Consistency in habitat preference of forest bird species. Transactions North American Wildlife Natural Resources Conference 45:226-244.
- Oberholser, H.C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. 2 volumes. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas.
- Rappole, J.H., E.S. Morton, and M.A. Ramos. 1992. Density, philopatry, and population estimates for songbird migrants wintering in Veracruz. Pages 337-344 IN Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds (J. M. Hagan and D. W. Johnston, Eds.). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
- Robbins, C.S., B.A. Dowell, D.K. Dawson, J.A. Colon, R. Estrada, A. Sutton, R. Sutton, and D. Weyer. 1992. Comparison of Neotropical migrant landbird poulations wintering in tropical forest, isolated forest fragments, and agricultural habitats. Pages 207-20 in J. M. Hagan III and D. W. Johnston (editors). Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Landbirds. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
- Sibley, D.A. 2000. The Sibley guide to birds. National Audubon Society and Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, NY. 544 pp.
- Sodhi, N.S. and C.A. Paszkowski. 1997. The pairing success of male Black-and-White Warblers, (Mniotilta varia), in forest fragments and a continuous forest. Canadian Field-Naturalist 111:457-458.
- Terres, J. K. 1980. The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American birds. A. A. Knopf, New York.
- Westworth, D.A. and E.S. Telfer. 1993. Summer and winter bird populations associated with five age-classes of aspen forest in Alberta. Canada Journal of Forestry Research 23:1830-1836.
- Wilson, C.W., R.E. Masters, and G.A. Bukenhofer. 1995. Breeding bird response to pine-grassland community restoration for red-cockaded woodpeckers. Journal of Wildlife Management 59:56-67.
Additional ReferencesLegend: View Online Publication
Do you know of a citation we're missing?
- American Ornithologists’ Union [AOU]. 1998. Check-list of North American birds, 7th edition. American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C. 829 p.
- Baicich, P.J. and C.J.O. Harrison. 2005. A guide to the nests, eggs and nestlings of North American birds. Second edition. Academic Press, New York.
- Blake, J. G., and B. Loiselle. 1992. Habitat use by neotropical migrants at La Selva Biological Station and Braulio Carrillo National Park, Costa Rica. Pages 257-72 in J. M. Hagan III and D. W. Johnston (editors). Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Landbirds. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
- Casey, D. and D. Hein. 1983. Effects of heavy browsing on a bird community in deciduous forest. Journal of Wildlife Management 47:829-836.
- Chadwick, N. L., D. R. Progulske, and J. T. Finn. 1986. Effects of fuelwood cutting on birds in southern New England. Journal of Wildlife Management 50:398-405.
- Davis, W.E. Jr. 1989. Distraction display or ¿injury feigning¿ in birds. Bird Observer, 17:125-127.
- Dobkin, D. S. 1992. Neotropical migrant landbirds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. U.S.D.A. For. Serv. N. Region Publ. R1-93-34. Missoula, Mont.
- Dobkin, D.S. 1994. Conservation and management of neotropical migrant landbirds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. Univ. Idaho Press, Moscow, Idaho. 220 pp.
- Dunn, J.L. and K.L. Garrett. 1997. A field guide to warblers of North America. Houghton and Mifflin Publ., Boston, Mass. x + 656 pp.
- Ehrlich, P., D. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. The birder’s handbook: a field guide to the natural history of North American birds. Simon and Schuster Inc. New York. 785 pp.
- Faanes, C.A. 1983. Breeding birds of wooded draws in western North Dakota. Prairie Nat. 15(4): 173-187.
- Forman, R. T., A. E. Galli, and C. F. Leck. 1976. Forest size and avian diversity in New Jersy woodlots with some land use implications. Oecologia 26:1-8.
- Freedman, B., C. Beauchamp, I. A. McLaren, and S. I. Tingley. 1981. Forestry management practices and populations of breeding birds in a hardwood forest in Nova Scotia. Canadian Field-Naturalist 95:307-311.
- Galli, A. E., C. F. Leck, and R. T. T. Forman. 1976. Avian distribution patterns in forest islands of different sizes in central New Jersey. The Auk 93:356-64.
- Gniadek, S. 1983. Southwest Glendive Wildlife Baseline Inventory. Miles City, Mont: Bureau of Land Management, Miles City District Office. 56 pp with appendices.
- Graber, J. W., R. R. Graber, and E. L. Kirk. 1983. Illinois birds: wood warblers. Biological Notes 118. Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois.
- Hays, R., R.L. Eng, and C.V. Davis (preparers). 1984. A list of Montana birds. Helena, MT: MT Dept. of Fish, Wildlife & Parks.
- James, D. A. and J. C. Neal. 1986. Arkansas Birds - Their Distribution and Abundance. The University of Arkansas Press, Fayetteville, Arkansas.
- James, F.C. 1971. Ordination of habitat relationships among breeding birds. Wilson Bull. 83: 215-236.
- Johnsgard, P.A. 1979. Birds of the Great Plains: breeding species and their distribution. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. 539 pp.
- Johnsgard, P.A. 1992. Birds of the Rocky Mountains with particular reference to national parks in the northern Rocky Mountain region. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. xi + 504 pp.
- Joslin, Gayle, and Heidi B. Youmans. 1999. Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife: a review for Montana. [Montana]: Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society.
- Lemon, R.E., J. Struger, and M.J. Lechowicz. 1983. Song features as species discriminants in American wood-warblers (Parulidae). Condor 85: 308-322.
- Lenard, S., J. Carlson, J. Ellis, C. Jones, and C. Tilly. 2003. P. D. Skaar's Montana bird distribution, 6th edition. Montana Audubon, Helena, MT. 144 pp.
- O¿Shea, T. J., and T. A. Vaughan. 1999. Population changes in bats from central Arizona: 1972 and 1977. Southwestern Naturalist 44:495-500.
- Palmer-Ball, B.L., Jr. 1996. The Kentucky Breeding Bird Atlas. The University Press of Kentucky, Lexington.
- Pashley, D. N. 1988. Warblers of the West Indies. I. The Virgin Islands. Caribbean J. Sci. 24:11-22.
- Pashley, D. N. 1988. Warblers of the West Indies. II. The Western Caribbean. Caribbean J. Sci. 24:112-126.
- Pashley, D. N., and R. B. Hamilton. 1990. Warblers of the West Indies. III. The Lesser Antilles. Caribbean J. Sci. 26:75-97.
- Pearse, P. A., D. D. Peakall, and A. J. Erskine. 1976. Impact on forest birds of the 1975 spruce budworm spray operation in New Brunswick. Canadian Wildlife Service Progress Note 62.
- Peck, G.K., and R.D. James. 1983. Breeding birds of Ontario, nidology and distribution, volume 1: nonpasserines. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada.
- Pyle, P.S., N.G. Howell, R.P. Yunick, and D.F. DeSante. 1987. Identification guide to North American passerines. Slate Creek Press, Bolinas, California. 273 pp.
- Raffaele, H. A. 1989. A guide to the birds of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Revised edition. Princeton Univ. Press. 220 pp.
- Ralph, J.C., J.R. Sauer, and S. Droege. 1995. Monitoring bird populations by point counts. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-149. Albany, CA: USDA Pacific Southwest Research Station. 181 p.
- Reitsma, L.R., R.T. Holmes, and T.W. Sherry. 1990. Effects of removal of red squirrels, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, and eastern chipmunks, Tamias striatus, on nest predation in a northern hardwood forest: an artificial nest experiment. Oikos 57:375-380.
- Rich, A. C., D. S. Dobkin, and L. J. Niles. 1994. Defining forest fragmentation by corridor width: the influence of narrow forest-dividing corridors on forest-nesting birds in southern New Jersey. Conser. Biol. 8:1109-21.
- Ridgely, R. S. and G. Tudor. 1989. The birds of South America. Volume 1. University of Texas Press, Austin, USA. 516 pp.
- Sibley, D. 2014. The Sibley guide to birds. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY. 598 pp.
- Skaar, P. D., D. L. Flath, and L. S. Thompson. 1985. Montana bird distribution. Montana Academy of Sciences Monograph 3(44): ii-69.
- Skaar, P.D. 1969. Birds of the Bozeman latilong: a compilation of data concerning the birds which occur between 45 and 46 N. latitude and 111 and 112 W. longitude, with current lists for Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, impinging Montana counties and Yellowstone National Park. Bozeman, MT. 132 p.
- Stewart, R.E. 1975. Breeding birds of North Dakota. Tri-College Center for Environmental Studies, Fargo, North Dakota. 295 pp.
- Stewart, R.E. and H.A. Kantrud. 1972. Population estimates of breeding birds in North Dakota. The Auk 89(4):766-788.
- Stiles, F.G. and A.F. Skutch. 2003. A guide to the birds of Costa Rica. Comstock Publishing Associates, Cornell University Press, Ithaca. 511 pp.
- Strelke, W. K. and J. G. Dickson. 1980. Effect of forest clear-cut edge on breeding birds in east Texas. Journal of Wildlife Management 44:559-567.
- Taylor, D.M. and C.H. Trost. 1987. The status of historically rare of unrecorded birds in Idaho. Unpublished manuscript. 68 p.
- Thompson, F. R., III and D. E. Capen. 1988. Avian assemblages in seral stages of a Vermont forest. Journal of Wildlife Management 52:771-777.
- Thompson, F. R., III, W. D. Dijak, T. G. Kulowiec, and D. A. Hamilton. 1992. Breeding bird populations in Missouri ozark forests with and without clearcutting. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:23-30.
- U.S. Forest Service. 1991. Forest and rangeland birds of the United States: Natural history and habitat use. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Agricultural Handbook 688. 625 pages.
- Waldt, R. 1995. The Pine Butte Swamp Preserve bird list. Choteau, MT: The Nature Conservancy. Updated August 1995.
- Wilcove, D. S. 1988. Changes in the avifauna of the Great Smoky Mountains: 1947-1983. Wilson Bulletin 100:256-271.
- Yahner, R. H. 1986. Structure, seasonal dynamics, and habitat relationships of avian communities in small even-aged forest stands. Wilson Bulletin 98:61-82.
- Yahner, R. H. 1993. Effects of long-term forest clear-cutting on wintering and breeding birds. Wilson Bull. 105:239-255.
Web Search Engines for Articles on "Black-and-white Warbler"
Additional Sources of Information Related to "Birds"

Citation for data on this website:
Black-and-white Warbler — Mniotilta varia. Montana Field Guide. Montana Natural Heritage Program and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks. Retrieved on April 7, 2025, from https://FieldGuide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=ABPBX05010

Montana Field Guide

Montana Field Guides

Take us with you!