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Elk - Cervus canadensis
Other Names:  Wapiti, Cervus elaphus

Image Copyright and Usage Information
Native Species

Global Rank: G5
State Rank: S5
(see State Rank Reason below)


Agency Status
USFWS:
USFS:
BLM:


 

External Links


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Copyright by Borror Laboratory of Bioacoustics, Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, all rights reserved.
State Rank Reason (see State Rank above)
Species is relatively common within suitable habitat and widely distributed across portions of the state
  • Details on Status Ranking and Review
    Elk (Cervus canadensis) Conservation Status Review
    Review Date = 05/03/2018
    Range Extent

    ScoreG - 200,000-2,500,000 km squared (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)

    Comment254,597 square Kilometers from Natural Heritage Program range maps

    Short-term Trend

    ScoreF - Increasing. Increase of >10% in population, range, area occupied, and/or number or condition of occurrences

    CommentPopoulations are generally stable to increasing across the state

    Threats

    ScoreH - Unthreatened. Threats if any, when considered in comparison with natural fluctuation and change, are minimal or very localized, not leading to significant loss or degradation of populations or area even over a few decades’ time. (Severity, scope, and/or immediacy of threat considered Insignificant.)

    CommentNo threats active

    Intrinsic Vulnerability

    ScoreB - Moderately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance over a period of several years (on the order of 5-20 years or 2-5 generations); or species has moderate dispersal capability such that extirpated populations generally become reestablished through natural recolonization (unaided by humans).

    CommentModerately Vulnerable

    Environmental Specificity

    ScoreD - Broad. Generalist. Broad-scale or diverse (general) habitat(s) or abiotic and/or biotic factors are used or required by the species, with all key requirements common in the generalized range of the species in the area of interest. If the preferred food(s) or breeding/nonbreeding microhabitat(s) become unavailable, the species switches to an alternative with no resulting decline in numbers of individuals or number of breeding attempts.

    CommentBroad generalist

    Raw Conservation Status Score

    Score 3.5 + 0 (geographic distribution) + 0.5 (environmental specificity) + 0.25 (short-term trend) + 1 (threats) = 5.25

 
General Description
Coat brown (pale yellowish in old bulls); head, neck, and legs darker than the rest of body; distinctive rump patch yellowish to almost orange; mane or ruff longer in bulls than in cow; antlers of mature bulls generally have five tines projecting from the main branch for a total of six points; bulls can weigh more than 1,000 lbs. before the rut but seldom exceed 900 lbs. during hunting season; cows weigh 500 to 600 lbs. in bitterbush hillsides in winter. Strong herding instinct; old cows usually lead summer herds of cows, calves, and yearling (spike) bulls; in western Montana, Elk usually summer at higher elevations and move down to grass and/or shrub winter ranges (with nearby trees for thermal cover); habitat use strongly influenced by human activities.

Species Range
Montana Range Range Descriptions

All Ranges
Native
Historical
(Click legend blocks to view individual ranges)

Montana Distribution


Western Hemisphere Range

 


Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database
Number of Observations: 6951

(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version) Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density

Recency

 

(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)



Migration
Migratory in some areas (Sun River, North Yellowstone) moving between seasonal ranges, non-migratory in others.

Habitat
Mainly coniferous forests interspersed with natural or man-made openings (mountain meadows, grasslands, burns, and logged areas). Varies between populations and areas. Basic habitat components: security, shelter (may use to maintain thermal equilibrium) and forage production. Moist sites preferred in summmer. High open road densities reduce habitat effectiveness. Good winter range critical.

Ecological Systems Associated with this Species
  • Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
    How Associations Were Made
    We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
    1. Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
    2. Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
    3. Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
    4. Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
    Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use.  In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system.  However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system, even if point observations were associated with that system.  Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature.  The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association.  If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.

    Suggested Uses and Limitations
    Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning.  These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at: mtnhp.org/requests) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists.  Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales.  Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade.  Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections).  Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.

    Literature Cited
    • Adams, R.A.  2003.  Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation.  Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado.  289 p.
    • Dobkin, D. S.  1992.  Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34.  Missoula, MT.
    • Foresman, K.R.  2012.  Mammals of Montana.  Second edition.  Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana.  429 pp.
    • Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998.  Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates.  Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.  1302 p.
    • Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young.  1999.  Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32.  72 p.
    • Maxell, B.A.  2000.  Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species.  Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1.  Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana.  161 p.
    • Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath.  2004.  Amphibians and reptiles of Montana.  Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.

Food Habits
Grasses, sedges, forbs, deciduous shrubs (especially willow and serviceberry) and young trees (especially chokecherry and maple), some conifers. Varies between ranges. Where shrubs and grasses are available, grass is preferred. Browse may be used, particularly in winter and on western ranges. Conifers and arboreal lichens may also be used. Grass most important in spring. Forbs important in summer.

Ecology
A Line Creek study from 1988 to 1991 indicated that oil drilling activity in the area had no effect on size of home-range boundaries or use, use of core area, and centers of activity (Van Dyke and Klein 1996). Very adaptable (usually to local conditions). Elk, cattle and sheep may compete, particularly under poor rangeland conditions. Montana Cooperative Elk Logging study (1970 to 1985) supplied information on coordinated Elk and timber management. Elk population levels and food source tend to be in a dynamic equilibrium. Mortality in Elk calves in Yellowstone National Park is partially density dependent (Singer et al. 1997).

Reproductive Characteristics
Breed in late September and early October; one spotted calf; shed antlers during March or April; bulls gather and hold harems, challenge one another by bugling; cows usually breed when 2 1/2 years old. Polyestrous if initial fertilization does not occur. Parturition mid-May to mid-June. Twins are rare. Productivity varies - poor range condition may decrease calf production and early calf survival. Predation on calves occasionally significant.

References
  • Literature Cited AboveLegend:   View Online Publication
    • Singer, F.J., A. Harting, K.K. Symonds, and M.B. Coughenour. 1997. Density dependence, compensation, and environmental effects on elk calf mortality in Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildlife Management 61:12-25.
    • Van Dyke, F. and W.C. Klein. 1996. Response of elk to installation of oil wells. Journal of Mammalogy 77(4):1028-1041.
  • Additional ReferencesLegend:   View Online Publication
    Do you know of a citation we're missing?
    • Adkins, R.J. 1991. An analysis of game damage and game damage complaints in Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 90 p.
    • Allen, E. 0., and H. R. Chrest, eds. 1973. Proc. Western States Elk Workshop, Bozeman. 151 pp.
    • Allen, E. 0., et aI. 1973. Cooperative elk-logging study. Prog. Rep. Jan. I-Dec. 31, 1972. Montana Dept. of Fish and Game. 80 pp.
    • Allen, E. 0., et al. 1974. Cooperative elk-logging study. Prog. Rep. Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1973, Montana Dept. of Fish and Game. 164 pp.
    • Allen, E. 0., et al. 1975. Cooperative elk-logging study. Prog. Rep. for the period Jan. I-Dec. 31, 1972, Montana Dept. of Fish and Game. 172 pp.
    • Allen, E. O. 1971. Elk-logging relationships in the northern Rocky Mountains. NW Sect. Wildl. Soc. Meeting, Bozeman, MT.
    • Allen, E. O. 1974. Effects of logging on elk populations. State of Montana, Proj. No. W-120-R-5.
    • Allen, E. O. 1977. A new perspective for elk habitat management. MT Dept. Fish and Game.
    • Allen, Eugene O. 1970. Migration habits of the Gallatin Elk Herd. Montana Outdoors 5:4-6
    • Allen, T.D.H. 2011. Wildlife guards for deer and Black Bear. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 71 p.
    • Alt, K. L., M. R. Frisina and F. J. King. 1992. Coordinated management of elk and cattle, a perspective - Wall Creek Wildlife Management Area. Rangelands 14:12-15.
    • Altmann, M. 1958. Management plan for the Northern elk herd, Yellowstone National Park. USDI National Park Service, Doc. 1134. 11 pp.
    • American Field. 1900. Number of elk in Yellowstone Park. 53:5.
    • American Gem Corporations. 1996. Application for an Operating Permit and Proposed Plan of Operations: Gem Mountain Sapphire Mine, Granite County, Montana. August 1996
    • Anderson, C. The management of elk -nature's cattle (mimeo). 9 pp.
    • Angstman, J. B., and J. E. Gaab. 1950. West GalIatin winter elk study, 1949-1950. Mont. Fish and Game Comm., Wildl. Restor. Div., Quar. Rep. 10(2):33-34.
    • Anonymous. 1876. Hunting wapiti on the Loup. Field and Stream 6(13): 193, 6(14):211-212.
    • Anonymous. 1887. Eight elk slaughtered by poachers in the park. Field and Stream 29:441.
    • Anonymous. 1890. Effects of protection on elk of the national park. Field and Stream 34:84.
    • Anonymous. 1892. Elk, Yellowstone National Park. Field and Stream 38: 102, 539.
    • Anonymous. 1897. Elk in Yellowstone. Field and Stream 48.1.
    • Anonymous. 1908. Elk likely to starve in Yellowstone Park. Field and Stream 70:487, 494.
    • Anonymous. 1911. Elk in Montana. BioI. Circ. 82: 10.
    • Anonymous. 1913. Elk in Yellowstone Park. Outdoor Life 31:89.
    • Anonymous. 1914. Restocking the country with elk. Field and Stream 81:178.
    • Anonymous. 1914. Yellowstone Park elk in 1914. Outdoor Life 34:66.
    • Anonymous. 1916. Extend the Yellowstone Park. Outdoor Life 17:267.
    • Anonymous. 1917. Elk in Yellowstone Park. Sportsmen's Review 51:384.
    • Anonymous. 1928. Sportsmen move to save the elk. Western-Out-of-Doors 5(4):22.
    • Anonymous. 1929. Proposed wildlife survey, National Park Service: elk survey in the Yellowstone country. J. Mammal. 10:371-372.
    • Anonymous. 1931. Moose-elk in Montana. Calif. Fish and Game. 17: 198.
    • Anonymous. 1936. Abandonment of Sun River elk preserve to be investigated. Mont. Fish and Game Notes :22-23.
    • Anonymous. 1950. Elk planting program. Montana Fish and Game Comm. 1949-1950 Biennial Rep.
    • Anonymous. 1961. The Upper Gallatin elk herd -- cooperative management. Montana Wildlife. July.
    • Anonymous. 1964. A review of some events affecting managenlent of the Upper Gallatin elk herd. Unpubl. Spec. Rep. Montana Fish and Game Department, Helena. 46 pp.
    • Anonymous. 1964. Sun River elk herd, 1910-1964. Unpubl. Spec. Rep. Montana Fish and Game Dept. 53 pp.
    • Anonymous. 1966. Special Upper GalIatin elk season, 1965-1966. UnpubI. Rep. Montana Fish and Game Dept., Bozeman.
    • Anonymous. 1967. The paradox of the YelIowstone elk. NatI. WildI. 5(6):18-19.
    • Anonymous. 1977. Montana cooperative elk-logging study. Prog. Rep. for the period Jan. 1 - Dec. 31, 1976. 115 pp.
    • Ball, L. A. 1958. Elk nutrition: the response of elk calves to various winter diets under controlled conditions. M.S. thesis. Montana State University.
    • Bannon, H. T. 1928. The YelIowstone elk herd. Outdoor Life. 61(6):31,104-105.
    • Barber-Meyer S.M., L.D. Mech, and P.J. White. 2008. Elk calf survival and mortality following wolf restoration to Yellowstone National Park. Wildlife Monographs 169:1-30.
    • Barmore, W. J. 1967. Conflicts in recreation -- elk versus aspen in YelIowstone National Park. Am. Soc. Range Manage., Seattle, WA. 20: 17 pp.
    • Barmore, W.F. 1965. Aspen-elk relationships on the Northern Yellowstone winter range. West. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm. Elk Workshop. 16 pp.
    • Barnes, W. C. 1912. Report on the elk using the rangesof the national forests surrounding the Yellowstone National Park. USDI For. Serv. Spec. Rep. 71 pp.
    • Barnes, W. C. 1925. Tagging the elk. Am. For. and Forest Life 31:35.
    • Basile, J. V. 1970. Fertilizing to improve elk winter range in Montana. U. S. For. Serv. Res. Note INT-113.
    • Beak Consultants, Inc. 1983. Wildlife. January 1983. In Stillwater Project Environmental Studies. Addendum A, Wildlife. Vol. I. Tech. Report No. 7. 1982.
    • Beall, R. C. 1974. Winter habitat selection and use by a western Montana elk herd. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Montana, Missoula. 197 pp.
    • Beall, R.C. 1974. Winter habitat selection and use by a western Montana elk herd. Agriculture, Forestry, & Wildlife, Order No. 75-84. 209 p.
    • Becker, M.S. 2008. Applying predator-prey theory to evaluate large mammal dynamics: Wolf predation in a newly-established multiple-prey system. Ph.D. Dissertation. 148 p.
    • Berger, Joel. 1991. Greater Yellowstone's native ungulates: myths and realities. Conservation Biology. 5(3): 353-363.
    • Biggins, D. E. 1975. Seasonal habitat selection and movements of the Spotted Bear elk herd. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula.
    • Bilbao, J.V. 2008. Predicting feeding site selection of mule deer on foothill and mountain rangelands. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 40 p.
    • Bohne, J. R. 1974. Food habits, seasonal distribution, and habitat utilization of elk in the South Fork of Fish Creek, Lolo National Forest, Montana. State of MT, Proj. No. W-120-R-2, 3.
    • Boyce, M. S. and L. D. Hayden-Wing (eds.). 1980. North American Elk: ecology, behavior, and management. 294 pp.
    • Brazda, A. R. 1953. Elk migration patterns, and some of the factors affecting movements in the Gallatin River drainage, Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 17(1):9-23.
    • Brazda, A.R. 1952. Elk migration patterns and some of the factors affecting movements in the Gallatin River drainage, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 42 p.
    • Brennan, A.L. 2014. Linking patterns in elk aggregation and brucellosis to variation in group size, land use, climate and wolves. Ph.D. Dissertation. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 179 p.
    • Brewer, T.K. 2002. Effects of spring clipping on bluebunch wheatgrass in summer. M. Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 62 p.
    • Brown, D. L. 1954. Census and survey of established elk herds. Mont. Fish and Game Dep., Wildl. Restor. Div., Quar.Rep.
    • Brown, D. L. 1954. Eastern Montana big game surveys -- elk trapping and tagging on the Judith Game Range. Mont. Fish and Game Dep. W-59-R-l 5(2).
    • Brown, D. L. 1955. Deer and elk trapping and tagging on Judith Game Range. Mont. Fish and Game Dept., P-R Quart. Rept. Proj. W-59-R-26(2).
    • Buck, C.L. 1939. Pattern correlation of mammalian teeth as a means of identification. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 55 p.
    • Burcham, M. B., L. J. Lyon and C. L. Marcum. 1990. Elk winter habitat selections in response to winter conditions. Western States and Provinces Elk Workshop, Eureka, Calif.
    • Byelich, B.R. 1993. Seasonal locations of bighorn sheep, mountain goats, and elk on the Haystack Domestic Sheep Allotment, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 96 p.
    • Cahalane, V. H. 1938. The annual Nothern Yellowstone elk herd count. Trans. N. Am. WildI. Conf. 3:388-389.
    • Cahalane, V. H. 1943. Elk management and herd regulations - Yellowstone National Park. Trans. N. Am. WildI. Conf. 8:95101.
    • Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc., 1990, Stillwater Chromite Project Baseline Data Report: Hydrology and Wildlife Monitoring, Hydrology - November 1988 through November 1989, Wildlife - November 1988 through February 1990. June 30, 1990
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    • Canfield, J. E. 1987. Comparison of preseason and early hunting season habitat parameters at radioed-elk relocations near DeBorgia, MT. Final Rep. Lolo National Forest, USDA For. Serv., and Montana Dept. of Fish, Wildlife and Parks. 21 pp.
    • Canfield, J. E. 1988. Impact mitigation and monitoring of the BP 500-KV Garrison-Taft transmission line -- effects on elk security and hunter opportunity. Final Rep. Montana Dept. Fish, Wildlife and Parks. 161 pp.
    • Canfield, J. E. 1991. Applying radio telemetry data to timber sale effects analysis in the Harvey and Eightmile drainages in west-eentral Montana. Pp. 44-54 in A. G. Christensen, L. J. Lyon and T. N. Lonner, comps., Proc. Elk Vulnerability Symposium, Montana State University, Bozeman. 330 pp.
    • Canfield, J. E., J. L. Lyon, and J. M. Hillis. 1986. The influence of viewing angle on elk hiding cover in young timber stands. Research Paper INT-371. Ogden, UT. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 5pp.
    • Canfield, J.E. 1984. Elk habitat use and the impact of the construction and energization of a 500-KV AC powerline on the North Boulder winter range, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 130 p.
    • Carpenter, M. S. 1921. Depletion of Montana elk. Outdoor Life 47:181.
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    • Singer, F.J. 1975. Behavior of mountain goats, elk and other wildlife in relation to U.S. Highway 2, Glacier National Park. West Glacier, MT: Glacier National Park and the Federal Hwy. Admin. 96 p.
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    • Skinner, C. K. 1946. Live elk weights. Wyoming Wildlife 10(7):32.
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    • Skinner, M. P. 1920. Story of the Whitebar elk. Nat. History 20:576-583.
    • Skinner, M. P. 1925. Migration routes of Yellowstone elk. J. Mammal. 6: 184-197.
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    • Smith, B.L. and R.L. Robbins. 1994. Migrations and management of the Jackson elk herd. Washington, D.C. USDI, National Biological Survey. Resource Publication 199. 61 p.
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    • Thompson, Richard W., Western Resource Dev. Corp., Boulder, CO., 1996, Wildlife baseline report for the Montana [Montanore] Project, Lincoln and Sanders counties, Montana. In Application for a Hard Rock Operating Permit and Proposed Plan of Operation, Montanore Project, Lincoln and Sanders Counties, Montana. Vol. 5. Stroiazzo, John. Noranda Minerals Corp., Libby, MT. Revised September 1996.
    • Townsend, J. E. 1957. Game management aspects of the Gallatin elk herd in Montana. Proc. West. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comm. 37:206-210.
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    • Tyers, D.B. 1981. The condition of the northern winter range in Yellowstone National Park: a discussion of the controversy. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 170 p.
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Elk — Cervus canadensis.  Montana Field Guide.  .  Retrieved on , from