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Montana Field Guides

Beaver - Castor canadensis
Other Names:  Ksik stakii (Blackfeet), North American Beaver

Image Copyright and Usage Information
Native Species

Global Rank: G5
State Rank: S5
(see State Rank Reason below)


Agency Status
USFWS:
USFS:
BLM:


 

External Links


Listen to an Audio Sample
Copyright Jeff Rice, all rights reserved. Audio file courtesy of the Acoustic Atlas at Montana State University (www.acousticatlas.org)
State Rank Reason (see State Rank above)
Species is relatively common within suitable habitat and widely distributed across portions of the state
  • Details on Status Ranking and Review
    Beaver (Castor canadensis) Conservation Status Review
    Review Date = 05/03/2018
    Range Extent

    ScoreG - 200,000-2,500,000 km squared (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)

    Comment380,531 square Kilometers from Natural Heritage Program range maps

    Long-term Trend

    ScoreE - Relatively Stable (±25% change)

    CommentWhile the species has undergone significant declines due to trapping, populations have recovered across its historic range.

    Short-term Trend

    ScoreF - Increasing. Increase of >10% in population, range, area occupied, and/or number or condition of occurrences

    CommentSpecies continues to actively colonize areas from which it was extirpated

    Threats

    ScoreH - Unthreatened. Threats if any, when considered in comparison with natural fluctuation and change, are minimal or very localized, not leading to significant loss or degradation of populations or area even over a few decades’ time. (Severity, scope, and/or immediacy of threat considered Insignificant.)

    CommentSpecies is harvested/controlled, local populations suffer from outbreaks of tularemia. Species has not recolonized all areas from which it was extirpated, but is expanding in both range and population. Existing populations secure and stable.

    Intrinsic Vulnerability

    ScoreB - Moderately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance over a period of several years (on the order of 5-20 years or 2-5 generations); or species has moderate dispersal capability such that extirpated populations generally become reestablished through natural recolonization (unaided by humans).

    CommentModerately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance within 5-20 years or 2-5 generations. Species has good dispersal ca

    Environmental Specificity

    ScoreD - Broad. Generalist. Broad-scale or diverse (general) habitat(s) or abiotic and/or biotic factors are used or required by the species, with all key requirements common in the generalized range of the species in the area of interest. If the preferred food(s) or breeding/nonbreeding microhabitat(s) become unavailable, the species switches to an alternative with no resulting decline in numbers of individuals or number of breeding attempts.

    CommentRequires lentic or lotic waterbodies but this requirement aside, the species is found in a wide diversity of ecosystems and shows remarkable flexibly in its life history

    Raw Conservation Status Score

    Score 3.5 + 0 (geographic distribution) + 0.5 (environmental specificity) + 0.25 (short-term trend) + 1 (threats) = 5.25

 
General Description
The largest rodent in North America north of Panama. On land is a large, clumsy, hump-backed animal. In the water, becomes sleek and torpedo-shaped. Propels itself with powerful webbed hind feet. Beavers use their large dorsally flattened, scale-covered tail to maneuver in water. Slapping the tail on water surface is used as a signal of alarm. Split nail on the second hind toe is used for grooming. Incisors are large and continually growing. Fur is rich brown with black to reddish guard hairs. Under-fur is soft and extremely dense with excellent insulating qualities. Both sexes have a pair of anal glands and castor sacs located ventrally. Beavers emit anal gland secretions year round. Total length: 34 to 40 inches. Weight: 30 to 60 pounds. Builds stick and mud dams across streams. Mostly nocturnal. May build large conical houses at the edge of a lake or burrow into the bank for a den along rivers. Beaver life is based on a family unit consisting of a pair of adults, yearlings, and kits. The information in next section is from Hill (1982), Miller (1983), and Novak (1987a), unless otherwise indicated. The beaver is the largest North American rodent; most adults weigh 16 to 23 kg (35 to 50 pounds), rarely 32 to 38 kg (70 to 85 pounds) or more. Kits weigh about 0.5 kg or a little less (1 pound) at birth Hill (1982), when they are about 38 cm (15 inches) long Schwartz and Schwartz (1981). The relationship between beaver age and mass is roughly as follows: less than 0.5 years old, less than 5 kg (11 pounds); 0.5 to 1.5 years old, 6 to 11 kg (13 to 24 pounds); 1.5 to 2.5 years old, 10 to 13 kg (22 to 29 pounds); greater than 2.5 years old, greater than 14 kg (31 pounds). The preceding weight-age data are often accurate, but it must be realized that weight is influenced by various factors other than age. The total length of a beaver varies with age as follows: yearlings are 26 to 34 inches; adults of 2 to 3 years, 35 to 40 inches; older adults, 47+ inches (maximum about 4.5 feet) in the warmer months and generally ends at age 4 to 5 years. Pelage color varies geographically from yellowish-brown to black (this range of color may be found in a single watershed). There is one annual molt. The pelt is prime from late fall to early spring. The sexes are difficult to distinguish externally. Hodgen (1978) provided information on sexing beavers by their behavior in a live trap. See Novak (1987a) for additional references on sexing methods.

Diagnostic Characteristics
River Otter - tail covered with fur. Muskrat - smaller, tail slender. An inexperienced observer could mistake a Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), Round-tailed Muskrat (Neofiber alleni) or a Nutria (Myocastor coypus) for a Beaver, but these other rodents do not have a broad flattened tail.

Species Range
Montana Range Range Descriptions

Native

Western Hemisphere Range

 


Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database
Number of Observations: 10026

(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version) Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density

Recency

 

(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)



Habitat
Occupies a wide variety of habitats in North America. Water and associated woody vegetation are the most essential components of beaver habitat. Ideal beaver living sites include ponds, small lakes, meandering streams, and rivers.

Ecological Systems Associated with this Species
  • Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
    How Associations Were Made
    We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
    1. Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
    2. Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
    3. Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
    4. Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
    Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use.  In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system.  However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system, even if point observations were associated with that system.  Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature.  The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association.  If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.

    Suggested Uses and Limitations
    Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning.  These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at: mtnhp.org/requests) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists.  Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales.  Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade.  Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections).  Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.

    Literature Cited
    • Adams, R.A.  2003.  Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation.  Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado.  289 p.
    • Dobkin, D. S.  1992.  Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34.  Missoula, MT.
    • Foresman, K.R.  2012.  Mammals of Montana.  Second edition.  Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana.  429 pp.
    • Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998.  Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates.  Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.  1302 p.
    • Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young.  1999.  Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32.  72 p.
    • Maxell, B.A.  2000.  Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species.  Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1.  Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana.  161 p.
    • Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath.  2004.  Amphibians and reptiles of Montana.  Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.

Food Habits
Beavers are strict herbivores. Beavers eat a variety of woody and herbaceous species. Willows, mountain alder, and aspen are important foods. Will also consume herbaceous vegetation during summer. Much of the woody vegetation beavers cut is not used for food. Caches woody vegetation near shore for winter food.

Reproductive Characteristics
Breeds from January through March. Two to four young are born after a 105- to 107-day gestation period. One litter per year is produced. Two-year-olds are eventually driven from or leave the parental home.

Management
Beaver management and the role of beaver in riparian restoration in Montana is extensively addressed by Ritter et al. (2023), including sections on conflict management, land management changes needed to address beave restoration and management, beaver mimicry, encouraging natural colonization, and beaver transplantation.

References
  • Literature Cited AboveLegend:   View Online Publication
    • Hill, E.P. 1982. Beaver. Pages 256-281 in J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, editors. Wild Mammals of North America: biology, management, and economics. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 1147pp.
    • Hodgdon, H.E. 1978. Social dynamics and behavior within an unexploited beaver (Castor canadensis) population. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. 292 p.
    • Miller, J.E. 1983. Beavers. Prevention and control of wildlife damage. Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Agricultural and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
    • Novak, M. 1987. Beaver. Pp. 282-312 in: M. Novak, J.A. Baker, M.E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds. Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America. Ministry Nat. Res., Ontario. 1150 pp.
    • Ritter, T., M. McGree, D. Schmetterling, C. Gower, V. Boccadori. 2023. Beavers and their role in riparian restoration in Montana. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks White Paper, Version 1.0. 165 p.
    • Schwartz, C.W. and E.R. Schwartz. 1981. The wild mammals of Missouri. Revised edition. University of Missouri Press and Department of Conservation. Columbia and London. 356 pp.
  • Additional ReferencesLegend:   View Online Publication
    Do you know of a citation we're missing?
    • Adams, A.K. 1953. Some psycho-chemical effects of beaver dams upon Michigan trout streams in the Watersmeet area. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
    • Adelman, E.B. 1979. A survey of the nongame mammals in the Upper Rattlesnake Creek drainage of western Montana. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 129 pp.
    • Aldous, M. C. 1955. A tool for beaver dam removal. J. WildI. Manage. 19: 153-154.
    • Aldous, S.E. 1938. Beaver food utilization studies. Journal of Wildlife Management 2: 215-222.
    • Aleksiuk, M. 1968. Scent-mound communication, territoriality, and population regulation in beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl). Journal of Mammalogy 49(4): 759-762.
    • Aleksiuk, M. 1970. The seasonal food regime of arctic beavers. Ecology 51: 264-270.
    • Aleksiuk, M. and I.M. Cowan. 1969. Aspects of energy expenditure in the beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) at the northern limit of its distribution. Canadian Journal of Zoology 47(4): 471-481.
    • Aleksiuk, M. and I.M. Cowan. 1969. The winter metabolic depression in arctic beavers (Castor canadensis Kuhl) with comparisons to California beavers. Canadian Journal of Zoology 47(5): 965-979.
    • Allen, A.W. 1983. Habitat suitability index models: beaver. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-82/10.30. 20pp.
    • Allen, T.D.H. 2011. Wildlife guards for deer and Black Bear. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 71 p.
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    • Alt, Kurt, John E. Firebaugh, Lyn S. Nielsen, and Robert Henderson, 1985, II Game Bird and Fur (Small Game) Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. Region Two Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-16, Job No. 2, July 1, 1984 - June 30, 1985.
    • Alt, Kurt, John E. Firebaugh, Lyn S. Nielsen, and Robert Henderson, 1987, II Game Bird and Fur (Small Game) Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. Region Two Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-18, Job No. 2, July 1, 1986 - June 30, 1987.
    • Alt, Kurt., John E. Firebaugh, Lyn S. Nielsen, and Robert Henderson, 1986, Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. II Game Bird and Fur (Small Game) Survey and Inventory. Region Two Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-17, Job No. 2, July 1, 1985 - June 30, 1986.
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    • Barnes, D.M. and A.U. Mallik. 1996. Use of woody plants in the construction of beaver dams in northern Ontario. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74: 1781-1786.
    • Barnes, D.M. and A.U. Mallik. 1997. Habitat factors influencing beaver dam establishment in a northern Ontario watershed. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 1371-1377.
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    • Basey, J.M., S.H. Jenkins, and G.C. Miller. 1990. Food selection by beavers in relation to inducible defenses of Populus tremuloides. Oikos 59: 57.
    • Basey, J.M., S.H. Jenkins, and P.E. Busher. 1988. Optimal central place foraging by beavers: tree-size selection in relation to defensive chemicals of quaking aspen. Oecologia 6: 278.
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    • Belovsky, G.E. 1984. Summer diet optimization by beaver. American Midland Naturalist 11: 209.
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    • Busher, P.E. 1983. Interactions between beavers in a montane population in California. Acta Zoologica Fennica. 174: 109-110.
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    • Busher, P.E. and S.H. Jenkins. 1985. Behavioral patterns of a beaver family in California. Biology of Behavior 10(1): 41-54.
    • Busher, P.E., R.J. Warner, J. Randall, and S.H. Jenkins. 1983. Population density, colony composition, and local movements in two Sierra Nevadan beaver populations. Journal of Mammalogy 64(2): 314-318.
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    • Stewart, Shawn T., 1978, II Game Birds and Fur Survey and Inventory - Region 5. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-8, II, 5, July 1, 1976 - June 30, 1977.
    • Stirton, R.A. 1935. A review of the Tertiary beavers. Calif. Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol. Sci. 23: 391-458.
    • Stock, A.D. 1970. Notes on mammals of southwestern Utah. Journal of Mammalogy 51(2): 429-433.
    • Stock, J.D. and I.J. Schlosser. 1991. Short-term effects of a catastrophic beaver dam collapse on a stream fish community. Environmental Biology of Fishes 31: 123-129.
    • Stocker, G. 1983. Problems in utilization of plant food resources by the beaver. Revue Suisse de Zoologie 90: 487-496.
    • Svendsen, G. E. 1980. Population Parameters and Colony Composition of Beaver (Castor Canadensis) in Southeast Ohio. American Midland Naturalist 104: 47-56.
    • Svendsen, G. E. 1989. Pair formation, duration of pair-bonds, and mate replacement in a population of beavers (Castor canadensis). Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 336-340.
    • Svendson, G.E. 1978. Castor and anal glands of beaver (Castor canadensis). Journal of Mammalogy 59: 619-620.
    • Svendson, G.E. 1980. Seasonal change in feeding patterns of beaver in southeastern Ohio. Journal of Wildlife Management 44: 285-290.
    • Swank, W.E. 1949. Beaver ecology and management in West Virginia. Conserv. Comp. WV. 65pp.
    • Swank, W.G. and F.A. Glover. 1948. Beaver censusing by airplane. Journal of Wildlife Management 12: 214.
    • Swenson, J.E. and S.J. Knapp. 1980. Composition of beaver caches on the Tongue River in Montana. The Prarie Naturalist 12(2): 33-36.
    • Swenson, J.E., S.J. Knapp, P.R. Martin, and T.C. Hinz. 1983. Reliability of aerial cache surveys to monitor beaver population trends on prarie rivers in Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 47(3): 697-703.
    • Syphard, A.D., and M.W. Garcia. 2001. Human and beaver-induced wetland changes in the Chickahominy River watershed from 1953-1994. Wetlands 21(3): 342-353.
    • Tappe, D.T. 1942. The status of beavers in California. California Division of Fish and Game. Game Bulletin No. 3. 59p.
    • Taylor, D. 1970. Growth, decline, and equilibrium in a beaver population at Sagehen Creek, California. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
    • Taylor, D. 1971. Beaver population studies at Sagehen Creek. In: Transactions California-Nevada Section, The Wildlife Society; 1971 January 29-30; Sacramento, CA. Smartsville, CA: The Wildlife Society: 18-19.
    • Taylor, K.P. 1983. Factors influencing beaver management in rural Alaska-northern Bristol Bay. Acta Zoologica Fennica 174: 127-128.
    • Teaford, J.W. 1986. Beaver pond management. Section 5.5.2, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wildlife Resources Manual, Technical Report EL-86-10, Waterways Experiment Station, P.O. Box 631, Vickburg, Mississippi 39180-0631.
    • Terwilliger, J. and J. Pastor. 1999. Small mammals, ectomycorrhizae, and conifer succession in beaver meadows. Oikos 85: 83-94.
    • Tevis, L., Jr. 1950. Summer behavior of a family of beavers in New York state. Journal of Mammalogy 31: 40-65.
    • Thomas, A.E. 1986. Riparian protection/enhancement in Idaho. Rangelands 8(5): 224-227.
    • Thompson, L.S. 1981. Circle West wildlife monitoring study: Third annual report. Technical report No. 8. Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation. Helena, Montana.
    • Thompson, Richard W., Western Resource Dev. Corp., Boulder, CO., 1996, Wildlife baseline report for the Montana [Montanore] Project, Lincoln and Sanders counties, Montana. In Application for a Hard Rock Operating Permit and Proposed Plan of Operation, Montanore Project, Lincoln and Sanders Counties, Montana. Vol. 5. Stroiazzo, John. Noranda Minerals Corp., Libby, MT. Revised September 1996.
    • Thorniley, M. 1972. The dam builders. Pacific Search 7(3): 4-5.
    • Todd, A.W. 1981. Ecological arguments for fur-trapping in boreal wilderness regions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 9(2): 116-124.
    • Todd, P.A. 1992. Mountain beaver habitat use and management implications in Yosemite National Park. Natural Areas Journal 12(1): 26-31.
    • Townsend, J. E. 1952. A study in Beaver ecology in Western Montana with special reference to movements. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 44 p.
    • Townsend, J. E. 1953. Survey of beaver distribution and status in the Jefferson Basin. Montana Fish and Game Dept., P-R Quarterly Report. October-December:62-68.
    • Townsend, J.E. 1953. Beaver ecology in western Montana with special referrence to movements. Journal of Mammalogy 34(4): 459-479.
    • Townsend, J.E. 1955. Fur resources surveys and investigations: beaver ecology in the Jefferson basin. Montana Fish and Game Department, Project # MONT W-049-R-04/W.K.P.L.02/JOB C. 8p.
    • Townsend, J.E. and F.E. Newby. 1955. Montana beaver management. Proc. 35th Ann. Conf. W. Assn. State Game & Fish Comms., Project# MT W-049-R. p 269-278.
    • Townsend, P.A. and D.R. Butler. 1996. Patterns of landscape use by beaver on the lower Roanoke River floodplain, North Carolina. Physical Geography 17: 253-269.
    • Trueblood, R. W. 1964-65. Beaver population and distribution trends - aerial survey. Montana Fish and Game Dept. P-R Job Compl. Repts. Proj. W-76-R-I0, 11, Job D-2 (Multilith).
    • Trueblood, Richard W., 1977, II Game Birds and Fur (Small Game Survey and Inventory), Region Six Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-8, II, 6, July 1, 1976 - June 30, 1977.
    • Trueblood, Richard W., 1979, II Game Birds and Fur (Small Game Survey and Inventory), Region Six Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-9, II, 6, July 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978.
    • Trueblood, Richard W., 1980, II Game Birds and Fur (Small Game Survey and Inventory), Region Six Survey and Inventory. Statewide Wildlife Survey and Inventory. W-130-R-11, II, 6, July 1, 1979 - June 30, 1980.
    • Tufts, P.D. 1967. A comparative study of some environmental factors affecting beaver colony site locations. M.S. Thesis, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia. 174pp.
    • TVX Mineral Hill Mine, Amerikanuak, Inc., Gardiner, MT., 2002, Yearly summary of wildlife observation reports. 1990-2002 Letter reports.
    • Tweten, R.G. 1984. Baseline survey of furbearing mammals within the South Fork drainage Sun River, Montana. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 63 p.
    • USDI Fish and Wildlife Service., 1961, A Detailed report on fish and wildlife resources affected by McNamara Dam and Reservoir, Blackfoot River Project, Montana. June 1961.
    • Van Deelen, T. R. 1991. Dispersal patterns of juvenile beavers in western Montana. Thesis. University of Montana, Missoula, Montana. 91 p.
    • Van Deelen, T. R. and D. H. Pletscher. 1996. Dispersal Characteristics of Two-year-old Beavers, Castor canadensis, in Western Montana. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 110: 318-321.
    • Vanden Berge, R.J. and P.A. Vohs, Jr. 1977. Population status of beaver on the free-running Missouri River in southeastern South Dakaota. Proc. S.D. Acad. Sci. 56: 230-236.
    • Vogt, B. 1981. What ails the river otter? National Wildlife 19(2): 25-28.
    • Vore, J. 1993. Guidelines for the reintroduction of beavers into southwest Montana streams. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Townsend, Montana. 34pp.
    • Warren, E. R. 1926. A study of the beavers in the Yancey region of Yellowstone National Park. Roosevelt Wildlife Annals 1: 1-191.
    • Warren, E.R. 1905. Some interesting beaver dams in Colorado. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 429-437.
    • Warren, E.R. 1927. The beaver: its works and ways. London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox.
    • Waterman, C.F. 2001. Beaver ponds and trout. Montana Outdoors 32(4): 19-22.
    • Weckwerth, R. P. 1957. The relationship between the marten population and the abundance of small mammals in Glacier National Park. M.S. thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 76 pp.
    • WESTECH Env. Services, Inc., Helena, MT., 2000, Reconnaissance of Wildlife and Fisheries Resources at the Ruby Garnet Alder Gulch Property. May 24, 2000. In Application for an Operating Permit and Proposed Plan of Operations, Alder Gulch Mine Project, Mad
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    • Wheatley, M. 1997. Beaver, Castor canadensis, Home Range Size and Patterns of Use in the Taiga of Southeastern Manitoba: II. Sex, Age, and Family Status. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 111: 211-216.
    • White, D.S. 1990. Biological relationships to convective flow patterns within stream beds. Hydrobiologia 196: 149-158.
    • White, P.S. and S.T.A. Pickett. 1985. Natural disturbance and patch dynamics: an introduction. In: Pickett, S.T.A. and P.S. White; editors, The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. Academic Press, pp. 3-13.
    • Whitehead, B.K. 2020. The response of parafluvial soils to beaver mimicry restoration in a montane stream. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 114 p.
    • Wigley, T.B. and M.E. Garner. 1987. Impact of beavers in the Arkansas Ozarks. Report Series 298. Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. 12pp.
    • Wigley, T.B., T.H. Roberts, and D.H. Arner. 1983. Reproductive characteristics of beaver in Mississippi. Journal of Wildlife Management 47: 1172-1177.
    • Wilde, S.A., C.T. Youngberg, and H.H. Hovind. 1950. Changes in compositions of ground water, soil fertility, and forest growth produced by the construction and removal of beaver dams. Journal of Wildlife Management 14: 123-128.
    • Wiley, G.M. 1991. Aquatic invertebrate communities of beaver dams in a brown-water stream of Alberta. M.S. thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.
    • Willis, R.M. A beaver habitat classification system for the Truckee River. M.S. thesis, University of Nevada, Reno. 69pp.
    • Wilsson, L. 1971. Observations and experiments on the ethology of the European beaver (Castor fiber L.). Viltrevy 8(3): 115-266.
    • Winkle, P.L. and W.A. Hubert. 1990. Relations between brook trout standing stocks and habitat features in beaver ponds in southeastern Wyoming. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 10: 72-79.
    • Winston, M.R., C.M. Taylor, and J. Pigg. 1991. Upstream extirpation of four minnow species due to damming of a prairie stream. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 120: 98-105.
    • Wolff, S.W., T.A. Wesch, and W.A. Hubert. 1989. Stream channel and habitat changes due to flow augmentation. Regulated Rivers, Research and Management 4: 225-233.
    • Woo, M. and J.M. Waddington. 1990. Effects of beaver dams on subarctic wetland hydrology. Arctic 43(3): 223-230.
    • Woodward, D.K. 1977. Status and ecology of the beaver (Castor canadensis) in South Carolina with emphasis on the Piedmont region. M.S. thesis, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina. 208pp.
    • Woodward, D.K. and R.B. Hazel. 1991. Beavers in North Carolina: ecology, utilization, and management. Publication No. AG-434. North Carolina State University, Coooperative Extension Service, Raleigh. 21pp.
    • Woodward, D.K., J.D. Hair, and B.P. Gaffney. 1976. Status of beaver in South Carolina as determined by a postal survey of landowners. Proceedings, Annual Conference, Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 30: 448-454.
    • Woodward, D.K., R.B. Hazel, and B.P. Gaffney. 1985. Economic and environmental impacts of beaver in North Carolina. Pages 89-96 in P.T. Bromley (ed.), Proceedings of the Second Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference, Raleigh, North Carolina.
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    • Wotton, R.S. 1992. Animals that exploit lake outlets. Freshwater Forum 2: 62-76.
    • Wright, J.P., C.G. Jones, and A.S. Flecker. 2002. An Ecosystem engineer, the beaver, increases species richness at the landscape scale. Oecologia 132: 96-101.
    • Yavitt, J.B., G.E. Lang, and A.J. Sexstone. 1990. Methane fluxes in wetland and forest soils, beaver ponds, and low-order streams of a temperate forest ecosystem. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 22463-22474.
    • Yavitt, J.B., L.L. Angell, T.J. Fahey, C.P. Cirmo, and C.T. Driscoll. 1992. Methane fluxes, concentrations, and production in two Adirondack beaver impoundments. Limnology and Oceanography 37: 1057-1066.
    • Yeager, L.E. and K.G. Hay. 1955. A contribution toward a bibliography on the beaver. Tech Bull State of Colorado Department of Fish and Game 1 : 1-103.
    • Yeager, L.E. and R.R. Hill. 1954. Beaver management problems on western public lands. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 19: 462-479.
    • Yeager, L.E. and W.H. Rutherford. 1957. An ecological basis for beaver management in the Rocky Mountain Region. Transactions of the North Amrican Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 22: 269-299.
    • Zurowski, W. 1992. Building activity of beavers. Acta Theriologica 37: 403-411.
    • Zurowski, W. and B. Kasperczyk. 1986. Characteristics of a European beaver population in the Suwalki Lakeland. Acta Theriologica 34: 311-321.
    • Zurowski, W. and B. Kasperczyk. 1988. Effects of reintroduction of European beaver in the lowlands of the Vistula Basin. Acta Theriologica 33: 325-338.
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