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Black-tailed Prairie Dog - Cynomys ludovicianus

Image Copyright and Usage Information
Species of Concern
Native Species

Global Rank: G4
State Rank: S3
(see State Rank Reason below)


Agency Status
USFWS:
USFS:
BLM: SENSITIVE
FWP SWAP: SGCN3

External Links


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Copyright by Borror Laboratory of Bioacoustics, Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, all rights reserved.
State Rank Reason (see State Rank above)
Across much of eastern Montana this species occurs in areas with suitable soil and topography. However sylvatic plague has caused the species to decline and has affected colony size and dynamics. Ongoing threats from disease and persecution due to perceived competition with grazing make long-term status of this species uncertain.
  • Details on Status Ranking and Review
    Black-tailed Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) Conservation Status Review
    Review Date = 09/26/2018
    Range Extent

    ScoreG - 200,000-2,500,000 km squared (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)

    Comment253,696 square Kilometers from Natural Heritage Program range maps

    Long-term Trend

    ScoreD - Moderate Decline (decline of 25-50%)

    CommentSince European arrival substantial declines have occurred due to persecution and the introduction of plague

    Short-term Trend

    ScoreE - Stable. Population, range, area occupied, and/or number or condition of occurrences unchanged or remaining within ±10% fluctuation

    CommentDeclines in occupancy due to sylvatic plague appear to have stabilized in the last 10 years in monitored populations.Mapping efforts based on 2015 NAIP imagery have found little change in coverege of complexes across the core range of this species in Montana. Additionally more colonies were mapped than in previous years, but inference to population trends at this level is not possible due to the confounding influence of imagry resolution. It does not appear at this time that the species has undergone significant declines in the last decade.

    Threats

    ScoreB - Moderate and imminent threat. Threat is moderate to severe and imminent for a significant proportion (20-60%) of the population or area.

    CommentPlague has had substantial negative impacts on this species, and mortality events are still common. Persecution of populations due to perceived competition with livestock and the disruption to agriculture caused by burrows and clipping remains an ongoing threat to persistance of colonies

    SeverityModerate - Major reduction of species population or long-term degradation or reduction of habitat in Montana, requiring 50-100 years for recovery.

    CommentIn the absence of threats recovery could occur in 50 to 100 years

    ScopeModerate - 20-60% of total population or area affected

    CommentA significant portion of the population is under threat 20-60 %

    ImmediacyHigh - Threat is operational (happening now) or imminent (within a year).

    CommentOngoing

    Intrinsic Vulnerability

    ScoreB - Moderately Vulnerable. Species exhibits moderate age of maturity, frequency of reproduction, and/or fecundity such that populations generally tend to recover from decreases in abundance over a period of several years (on the order of 5-20 years or 2-5 generations); or species has moderate dispersal capability such that extirpated populations generally become reestablished through natural recolonization (unaided by humans).

    CommentModerate fecundity and dispersal abilities.

    Environmental Specificity

    ScoreC - Moderate. Generalist. Broad-scale or diverse (general) habitat(s) or other abiotic and/or biotic factors are used or required by the species but some key requirements are scarce in the generalized range of the species within the area of interest.

    CommentNeeds xeric environments with low slope and suitable soil type.

    Raw Conservation Status Score

    Score 3.5 + 0 (geographic distribution) + 0 (environmental specificity) + 0 (short-term trend) + -0.75 (threats) = 2.75

 
General Description
The Black-tailed Prairie Dog is the largest of the prairie dog species, weighing 700 to 1500 grams and measuring 28 to 33 centimeters from nose to tail (Burt and Grossenheider 1976, Hoogland and Foltz 1982). The overall color of the back and upper sides of the body and tail is generally dark cinnamon with buff coloring on the underside (Anderson 1972, Burt and Grossenheider 1976, Hall 1981). The distal third of the tail is black or dark brown (Hall 1981). They molt twice per year, prior to summer and prior to winter. The skull is about 60 centimeters long, with 22 teeth (Burt and Grossenheider 1976).

Diagnostic Characteristics
Black-tailed Prairie Dogs are easily separated from the similar White-tailed Prairie Dogs by the black color of the distal one-third of the tail tip. The Black-tailed Prairie Dog also lacks the distinctive dark face patches of the White-tailed Prairie Dog. Black-tailed Prairie Dogs are also found in more dense colonies than are White-tailed Prairie Dogs. Features of the skull and teeth can also be used to separate the two species of prairie dogs in Montana (Foresman 2012).

Black-tailed Prairie Dogs may also be confused with a number of ground squirrel (Spermophilus) species, but are distinguished by their much more robust body conformation and relatively short tail and their habit of living in much denser colonies with more developed burrow systems.

Species Range
Montana Range Range Descriptions

Native

Western Hemisphere Range

 


Observations in Montana Natural Heritage Program Database
Number of Observations: 10989

(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version) Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density

Recency

 

(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)



Migration
Black-tailed Prairie Dogs are not known to migrate, but young animals, primarily males, disperse from their natal burrows in May or June shortly after emerging from hibernation (Garrett and Franklin 1988). Males also disperse from their breeding territory after 2 years to avoid inbreeding with their two year old daughters (Hoogland 1995). Most dispersers remain in the home colony (Hoogland 1995), but others move up to 6 miles in search of new colonies (Knowles 1985).

Habitat
Black-tailed Prairie Dog colonies are found on flat, open grasslands and shrub/grasslands with low, relatively sparse vegetation. The most frequently occupied habitat in Montana is dominated by western wheatgrass, blue grama and big sagebrush (Montana Prairie Dog Working Group 2002). Colonies are associated with silty clay loams, sandy clay loams, and loams (Thorp 1949, Bonham and Lerwick 1976, Klatt and Hein 1978, Agnew et al. 1986) and fine to medium textured soils are preferred (Merriam 1902, Thorp 1949, Koford 1958), presumably because burrows and other structures tend to retain their shape and strength better than in coarse, loose soils. Encroachment into sands (e.g., loamy fine sand) occurs if the habitat is needed for colony expansion (Osborn 1942).

Shallow slopes of less than 10% are preferred (Koford 1958, Hillman et al. 1979, Dalsted et al. 1981), presumably in part because such areas drain well and are only slightly prone to flooding. By colonizing areas with low vegetative stature, Black-tailed Prairie Dogs often select areas with past human (as well as animal) disturbance. In Montana, colonies tended to be associated with areas heavily used by cattle, such as water tanks and long-term supplemental feeding sites (Licht and Sanchez 1993, FaunaWest 1998).

Ecological Systems Associated with this Species
  • Details on Creation and Suggested Uses and Limitations
    How Associations Were Made
    We associated the use and habitat quality (common or occasional) of each of the 82 ecological systems mapped in Montana for vertebrate animal species that regularly breed, overwinter, or migrate through the state by:
    1. Using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding, overwintering, or migratory habitat requirements of each species (Dobkin 1992, Hart et al. 1998, Hutto and Young 1999, Maxell 2000, Foresman 2012, Adams 2003, and Werner et al. 2004);
    2. Evaluating structural characteristics and distribution of each ecological system relative to the species' range and habitat requirements;
    3. Examining the observation records for each species in the state-wide point observation database associated with each ecological system;
    4. Calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of "observations versus availability of habitat".
    Species that breed in Montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use, species that only overwinter in Montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use, and species that only migrate through Montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use.  In general, species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system.  However, species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system, even if point observations were associated with that system.  Common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature.  The percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of Montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association.  If you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems, please contact the Montana Natural Heritage Program's Senior Zoologist.

    Suggested Uses and Limitations
    Species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape-level planning.  These potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species (this information can be requested at: mtnhp.org/requests) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists.  Users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales.  Land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade.  Thus, particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas (e.g., evaluations of public land survey sections).  Finally, although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range, portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species' known geographic range.

    Literature Cited
    • Adams, R.A.  2003.  Bats of the Rocky Mountain West; natural history, ecology, and conservation.  Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado.  289 p.
    • Dobkin, D. S.  1992.  Neotropical migrant land birds in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region. Publication No. R1-93-34.  Missoula, MT.
    • Foresman, K.R.  2012.  Mammals of Montana.  Second edition.  Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, Montana.  429 pp.
    • Hart, M.M., W.A. Williams, P.C. Thornton, K.P. McLaughlin, C.M. Tobalske, B.A. Maxell, D.P. Hendricks, C.R. Peterson, and R.L. Redmond. 1998.  Montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates.  Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.  1302 p.
    • Hutto, R.L. and J.S. Young.  1999.  Habitat relationships of landbirds in the Northern Region, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-GTR-32.  72 p.
    • Maxell, B.A.  2000.  Management of Montana's amphibians: a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification, distribution, taxonomy, habitat use, natural history, and the status and conservation of individual species.  Report to U.S. Forest Service Region 1.  Missoula, MT: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana.  161 p.
    • Werner, J.K., B.A. Maxell, P. Hendricks, and D. Flath.  2004.  Amphibians and reptiles of Montana.  Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. 262 p.

Food Habits
Black-tailed Prairie Dogs prefer grasses, focusing their herbivory on leaf bases (Koford 1958, Hansen and Gold 1977, Uresk 1984, Krueger 1986). The proportion of other forage types in the diet varies with season, location on town, and vegetative composition (Koford 1958, Hansen and Gold 1977, Uresk 1984, Krueger 1986, Summers and Linder 1978, Bonham and Lerwick 1976, Fagerstone et al. 1981). A 950-gram animal consumes roughly 2.2 pounds of dry laboratory feed per month, or 26.4 pounds per year (Hansen and Cavender 1973). In terms of forage consumption, Merriam (1902) and Koford (1958) estimated the number of Black-tailed Prairie Dogs equivalent to one animal unit (A.U.) to be 256 and 335, respectively. They apparently do not require free water (Merriam 1902, Bintz 1984). Water is obtained from green grass and forb shoots (green grasses contain about 68 to 77% water) (Bintz 1984), and, in winter, from succulents such as Opuntia spp., which are about 80% water (Summers and Linder 1978, Fagerstone et al. 1981).

Ecology
Dispersal is heavily biased toward 1 to 2 year old males (Hoogland 1995). Intercolony dispersers may move up to 5 kilometers (Garrett and Franklin 1988). Dispersal was verified in 2 of 1200 marked animals in South Dakota: 1 moved 1 kilometer, the other 2 kilometers (Hoogland 1995). Other species are important in prairie ecosystem, Burrowing Owls, Mountain Plovers, and Black-footed Ferrets, and depend on Black-tailed Prairie Dog towns.

General information on Black-tailed Prairie Dogs is available.

The basic family group (the coterie) comprises one adult male (at least 2 years old), three or four adult females, and several yearlings or juveniles (Hoogland and Foltz 1982). Large coteries with two or more males occasionally occur. Females remain in their coterie for life, whereas males usually leave within 12 to 14 months after weaning. The coterie system deteriorates in spring during gestation and lactation (King 1959). An organizational level higher than the coterie is the ward (King 1959), a town subdivision described according to topographic features.

Nonexpanding colonies fluctuate significantly between years under normal conditions (King 1959, Koford 1958, O'Meilia et al. 1982, Powell, unpublished). Spring counts revealed 252 Black-tailed Prairie Dogs in one year and 92 four years later (Hoogland et al. 1988). Over a 10-year period, the number of weaned juveniles ranged from 4 to 133. Expanding colonies can grow enormously in a few years, increasing population levels 30 to 295% (Hansen and Gold 1977, Garrett and Franklin 1988, Reading et al. 1989). Human control efforts and plague cause substantial fluctuations in population size (see later sections for detailed discussions). In areas where immigration of new individuals is successful, genetic variability within a population is not decreased by large population reductions (Daley 1992).

Under normal conditions, without catastrophic factors operating (e.g., plague or severe predation), rates of mortality vary substantially from year to year, both within and between cohorts (King 1959, Koford 1958, Hoogland et al. 1988). First year survival averaged 50 to 56% for males and females but ranged from 32 to 79% over a 5-year period (Hoogland et al. 1988). Mortality levels drop greatly after the first year, with males typically living to 3 to 4 years and females to 4 to 5 years. King (1955) observed 44% mortality in one population, with 36% mortality in the juvenile cohort followed by 22% mortality in the same cohort the following year.

Sylvatic plague is extremely important where it occurs. Sylvatic (bubonic) plague is an exotic disease that can kill more than 99% of prairie dogs in a colony (Cully 1989). The plague bacteria (Yersinia pestis) is transmitted animal-to-animal by infected fleas or contact with infected blood or tissue. Plague may be introduced into a colony by other species or by dispersing Black-tailed Prairie Dogs, which bring plague-ridden fleas into a colony.

Historically, the major predators on Black-tailed Prairie Dogs were primarily the Black-footed Ferret and the Badger (Bailey 1905, Koford 1958, Stromberg et al. 1983, Cully 1989). Raptors, snakes, Coyotes, foxes, and Bobcats all prey upon them, but usually at low rates (Koford 1958, Cully 1989, Powell unpublished). Starvation associated with drought and severe winters and interactions between old age and other mortality factors contribute to mortality (Koford 1958).

Colonies expand under force of crowding associated with high survival rates and lack of forage (Koford 1958, Garrett et al. 1982). Off-colony attributes facilitating expansion include high forage availability, forage quality, and deep soils. Inter-colony dispersal typically occurs from colonies that have reached carrying capacity, though emigration from young expanding colonies does occur (Garrett et al. 1982, Garrett and Franklin 1988). Dispersal occurs in the spring amongst healthy yearling males and adult females, which disperse an average 2.4 kilometers (Garrett and Franklin 1988).

Average colony size is typically 20 to 60 hectares, though colonies of less than 10 hectares to complexes of several hundred hectares are not uncommon (Bishop and Culbertson 1976, Cheatheam 1977, Clark et al. 1982, Knowles 1986). One C. leucurus colony in Utah covered 958 hectares (Clark et al. 1982). Merriam (1902) reported a Texas Black-tailed Prairie Dog colony covering 25,000 square miles. Average burrow density varies widely, from 9 per hectare to at least 250 per hectare (Bishop and Culbertson 1976, Clark et al. 1982, Reading et al. 1989). Thirty to 100 burrows per hectare is common. The number of burrow entrances per hectare also varies substantially, with 50 to 123 a typical range (King 1959). Density of Black-tailed Prairie Dogs fluctuates within and between years according to colony demographics, environmental conditions, forage availability, and soil and/or vegetation sites within towns (Koford 1958, Powell in progress). Typical adult densities are about 12 per hectare (Koford 1958, King 1959, Powell in progress). After young are weaned (and can be counted aboveground), densities of all age classes totaled typically range from 5 to 30 animals per hectare (Koford 1958, Hansen and Gold 1977, Knowles 1986, O'Meilia et al. 1982). In three consecutive years, King (1959) noted densities in July on the same site to change from 22 to 14 to 41 animals per hectare.

In a study of 18 burrow systems Sheets et al. (1971) found the burrows ranging from 3 to 14 feet deep and 13 to 109 feet long, with tunnel diameter of 4 to 5 inches. Passageway plugs are used to inhibit predators, to compartmentalize and block off waste, or when the burrow system is under remodeling (Smith 1958, Sheets et al. 1971, Martin et al. 1984, Burns et al. 1989).

Reproductive Characteristics
The breeding system is harem-polygynous, with most females copulating with one male and males with several females (Hoogland and Foltz 1982). Females achieve estrous as early as the second week in March in Montana (Knowles 1987). Females are in estrous for several hours of only one day per year (Hoogland and Foltz 1982). Gestation averages 35 days (Hoogland 1985, Knowles 1987). Though almost all adult females achieve estrous and many become pregnant, juvenile mortality is high with only one half of copulating females weaning a litter (Hoogland and Foltz 1982). Minimum breeding age is usually two years for both sexes (Hoogland 1985, Knowles 1987). Litter size typically averages about 4 (Knowles 1987) (3 in yearlings, 5 in older females) (Koford 1958).

Vegetation condition does not necessarily affect litter size, with adults producing an average litter size of 4.3 on "fair" rangeland and 5.7 on "severely depleted" rangeland (Koford 1958), but relatively large and small litters may follow high and low rainfall, respectively. Individual females produce one litter per year. Pups stay underground until weaned (Hoogland 1985). Pups appear above ground in about 5 to 8 weeks (mid-May to early June in Montana). Due to forage availability and stress associated with crowding, the number of weaned juveniles increases as the number of adults and yearlings decreases, and vice-versa (Hoogland et al. 1988).

Management
Black-tailed Prairie Dogs are classified as a Species of Concern in Montana due to declines in abundance and a variety of threats to the population. Prairie dogs are managed under the Conservation Plan for Black-tailed and White-tailed Prairie Dogs in Montana (Montana Prairie Dog Working Group 2002). Please consult this plan for details concerning prairie dog management in Montana. Black-tailed Prairie Dogs are also classified as Vertebrate Pests by the Montana Department of Agriculture.

References
  • Literature Cited AboveLegend:   View Online Publication
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    • Burns, J.A., D.L. Flath and T.W. Clark. 1989. On the structure and function of white-tailed prairie dog burrows. Great Basin Naturalist 49(4):517-524.
    • Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1976. A field guide to the mammals. Third edition. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 289 pp.
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    • Daley, J. G. 1992. Population reductions and genetic variability in black-tailed prairie dogs. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:212-20.
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    • Knowles, C. J. 1985. Observations on prairie dog dispersal in Montana. Prairie Naturalist 17:33-40.
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    • Montana Prairie Dog Working Group. 2002. Conservation plan for black-tailed and white-tailed prairie dogs in Montana. Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks. Helena MT. 51 pp.
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  • Additional ReferencesLegend:   View Online Publication
    Do you know of a citation we're missing?
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    • Apa, A. D., D. W. Uresk, and R. L. Linder. 1990. Black-tailed prairie dog populations one year after treatment with rodenticides. Great Basin Nat. 50:107-113.
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    • Big Sky Wildlife Consultants. 2004. Surveys for active sage-grouse leks and raptor nests Custer National Forest. Slim Buttes, SD and Ashland Ranger District, MT. USFS Contract No. 43-0355-4-0061. 9 p.
    • Biggins, D.E., J.L. Godbey, and D.A. Eads. 2021. Epizootic plague in prairie dogs: correlates and control with deltamethrin. Fort Collins, CO: Fort Collins Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey. 7 p.
    • Biggins, Dean E., Jerry L. Godbey, Kenneth L. Gage, Leon G. Carter, and John a Montenieri. 2010. Vector control improves survival of three species of prairie dogs (Cynomys) in areas considered enzootic for plague.
    • Buck, C.L. 1939. Pattern correlation of mammalian teeth as a means of identification. M.Sc. Thesis. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University. 55 p.
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    • ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1977, Colstrip 10 x 20 Area wildlife and wildlife habitat annual monitoring report, 1977. Proj. 164-85-A. December 31, 1977.
    • ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1979, Annual wildllife report of the Colstrip Area for 1978. Proj. 195-85-A. April 6, 1979.
    • ECON, Inc. (Ecological Consulting Service), Helena, MT., 1979, Annual wildllife report of the Colstrip Area for 1979, including a special raptor research study. Proj. 216-85-A. March 1, 1980.
    • Fagerstone, K. A. and D. E. Biggins. 1986. Comparison of capture-recapture and visual count indices of prairie dog densities in black-footed ferret habitat. Great Basin Naturalist Mem. 8:94-8.
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    • Federal Register, 25 March 1999. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 90-day Finding for a Petition To List the Black-Tailed Prairie Dog as Threatened. Volume 64, Number 57: 50 CFR Part 17. Proposed Rules: pp. 14424-14428.
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    • Humphris, Michael., 1991, Wildlife Monitoring Report. Spring Creek Coal Company 1991 Mining Annual Report. Appendix I. April 11, 1991.
    • Humphris, Michael., 1993, Wildlife Monitoring Report. Spring Creek Coal Company 1993 Mining Annual Report. Appendix I. April 11, 1993.
    • Humphris, Michael., 1994, Wildlife Monitoring Report. Spring Creek Coal Company 1994 Mining Annual Report. Appendix I. April 1994.
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    • Joslin, Gayle, and Heidi B. Youmans. 1999. Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife: a review for Montana. [Montana]: Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society.
    • Knowles, C. J. 1982. Habitat affinity, populations, and control of black-tailed prairie dogs on the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Montana, Missoula. 171 pp.
    • Knowles, C. J. 1986. Population recovery of black-tailed prairie dogs following control with zinc phosphide. J. Range Manage. 39:249-251.
    • Knowles, C. J. 1988. An evaluation of shooting and habitat alteration for control of black-tailed prairie dogs. Pp 53-56 in: Eighth Great Plains Wildlife Damage Control Workshop Proceedings. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-154. Fort Collins, CO.
    • Knowles, C. J., and P. R. Knowles. 1991. Northern pocket gopher use of a black-tailed prairie dog colony following twelve years of no cattle grazing.
    • Knowles, C.J., and P.R. Knowles. 1984. Additional records of mountain plovers using prairie dog towns in Montana. Prairie Naturalist 16:183-186.
    • Knowles, C.J., C.J. Stoner, and S.P. Gieb. 1982. Selective use of black-tailed prairie dog towns by mountain plovers. Condor 84:71-74.
    • Kolbe, J.J., B.E. Smith, and D.M. Browning. 2002. Burrow use by Tiger Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) at a Black-tailed Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) town in southwestern South Dakota. Herpetological Review 33(2):95-99.
    • Linder, Rayond L., and Conrad N. Hillman, 1973, Proceedings of the Black-footed Ferret and Prairie Dog Workshop, September 4-6, 1973. Rapid City, South Dakota.
    • Luce, R. J. 2003. A Multi-State Conservation Plan For The Black-tailed Prairie Dog, Cynomys ludovicianus, in the United States – an addendum to the Black-tailed Prairie Dog Conservation Assessment and Strategy. Prairie Dog Conservation Team
    • Martin, P.R., K. Dubois and H.B. Youmans. 1981. Terrestrial wildlife inventory in selected coal areas, Powder River resources area final report. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks and Bureau of Land Management, Helena, MT. No. YA-553-CTO- 24. 288 p.
    • Matchett, M.R., T.R. Stanley, M.F. Mccollister, D.A. Eads, J.T. Boulerice, and D.E. Biggins. 2021. Oral sylvatic plague vaccine does not adequately protect prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) for endangered black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) conservation. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 21(12):1-20.
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    • Maxell, B.A. 2016. Northern Goshawk surveys on the Beartooth, Ashland, and Sioux Districts of the Custer-Gallatin National Forest: 2012-2014. Montana Natural Heritage Program. Helena, MT. 114pp.
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    • Miller, S.D., and J.F. Cully, Jr. 2001. Conservation of Black-tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Journal of Mammalogy 82:889-893.
    • Minta, S. C. and T. W. Clark. Habitat suitability analysis of potential translocation sites for black-footed ferrets in northcentral Montana. Pp. 29-45 in T. W. Clar, D. Hinckley and T. Rich (eds.). The prairie dog ecosystem: managing for biological diversity. Montana Bureau of Land Management Wildl. Tech. Bull. No. 2., Billings, MT. BLM-MT-PT-89-004-4352.
    • Mont. Dept. of Agriculture., 1985, Controlling burrowing rodents with burrow fumigants. Inform. Bul. No. 6.
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    • Montana Black-Footed Ferret Working Group. 1988. Montana prairie dog management guidelines. Billings, MT: Bureau of Land Management. 14 p.
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    • Montana Greater Sage-Grouse Working Group. 2000. Management plan and covservation strategies for Greater Sage-Grouse in Montana.
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    • Oldemeyer, J.L., D.E. Biggins, B.J. Miller, and R. Crete, editors. 1993. Proc. of the symposium on the management of prairie dog complexes for the reintroduction of the black-footed ferret. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep., No. 13. 96 pp.
    • Pizzimenti, J., and G. D. Collier. 1975. Cynomys parvidens. Mammalian Species 52:1-3.
    • Pizzimenti, J.J. and R.S. Hoffmann. 1973. Cynomys gunnisoni. Mammalian Species, 25:1-4.
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    • Powder River Eagle Studies, Inc., Gillette, WY., 1996, Spring Creek Mine 1995 Wildlife Monitoring Studies. Spring Creek Coal Company 1995-1996 Mining Annual Report. Vol. I, App. I. May 1996.
    • Powder River Eagle Studies, Inc., Gillette, WY., 1997, Spring Creek Mine 1996 Wildlife Monitoring Studies. February 1997.
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    • Reichel, J.D., D.L. Genter and E. Atkinson. 1992. Sensitive animal species in the Elkhorn and Big Belt Mountains of the Helena National Forest. Unpublished report to the Helena National Forest. Montana Natural Heritage Program, Helena. 158 p.
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    • Roy F. Weston, Inc., Bozeman, MT., and Western Technology and Engineering, Inc., Helena, MT., 1989, Stillwater PGM Resources East Boulder Project Addendum F: Supplemental Biological Studies. Final Report. December 1989.
    • Schladweiler, Philip, and John P. Weigand., 1983, Relationships of endrin and other chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds to wildlife in Montana, 1981-1982. September 1983.
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    • Sullins, M. 1977. Evaluation of prebaiting for improving bait acceptance by black-tailed prairie dogs. Mont. Dept. of Livestock Rep., Helena. 2 pp.
    • Sullins, M. 1979. Efficacy and cost of cyclone seeders, motorcycle dispensers, and hand baiting for controlling black-tailed prairie dogs. Mont. Dept. of Livestock Rep., Helena. 8 pp.
    • Sullins, M. 1980. A field comparison of strychnine, zinc phosphide and 1080 grain bits for controlling black-tailed prairie dogs. Mont. Dept. of Livestock Rep., Helena. 6 pp.
    • Sullins, M. 1980. Efficacy of strychnine and zinc phosphide baits for controlling black-tailed prairie dogs. Mont. Dept. of Livestock Rep., Helena. 3 pp.
    • Sullins, M. 1981. A field comparison of 0.20, 0.35, and 0.50 percent strychnine grain baits for controlling black-tailed prairie dogs. Mont. Dept. of Agriculture, Tech. Rep. 81-4, Helena. 4 pp.
    • Sullins, M. 1982. Efficacy of diphacinone baits for controlling black-tailed prairie dogs. Mont. Dept. of Agriculture, Tech. Rep. 82-6, Helena.
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    • Thompson, L.S. 1981. Circle West wildlife monitoring study: Third annual report. Technical report No. 8. Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation. Helena, Montana.
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    • Tripp, D.W., T.E. Rocke, J.P. Runge, R.C. Abbott, and M.W. Miller. 2017. Burrow dusting or oral vaccination prevents plague-associated prairie dog colony collapse. EcoHealth 14:451–462.
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    • USDI Bureau of Land Management. 1982. Blacktailed prairie dog control/management in Phillips Resource Area. Programmatic environmental assessment. Lewiston District, Phillips Resource Area, Malta. 40 pp.
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    • Waage, B.C. 1988. Western Energy Company Rosebud Mine, Colstrip, Montana: Annual Wildlife Monitoring Report, 1988 Field Season. December 1988.
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    • Witmer, G.W. and K.A. Fagerstone. No date. The use of toxicants in prairie dog management: an overview. Fort Collins, CO: USDA/APHIS/WS National Wildlife Research Center. 9 p.
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Black-tailed Prairie Dog — Cynomys ludovicianus.  Montana Field Guide.  .  Retrieved on , from